[i;i|lfiil![if 

{'■• 

1M§SI 

Ml 

•'.■r  ■{■-•' '^'UUvHui 

W 

Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/civiceducationsoOOsnedrich 


'■« 


CIVIC  EDUCATION 

SOCIOLOGICAL  FOUNDATIONS 
AND  COURSES 

By  David  Snedden 

Professor  of  Educational  Sociology 

and  Vocational  Education,    Teachers  College 

Columbia  University,  New  York 

Formerly  Commissioner  of  Education 

in  Massachusetts 


YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,  NEW  YTORK 

WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 
1923 


WORJLiD  EOOK   COMPA 


\  T*Hg  JIOUSE  OF  APPLIED  KNOWLEDGE 
Established  1905  by  Caspar  W.  Hodgson 

YoNKERS-ON-HlJDSON,    NEW  YORK 

2126   Prairie  Avenue,   Chicago 

The  making  of  competent  citizens  is  the 
most  important  function  of  the  schools  of  a 
democracy.  Conscious  civic  education,  how- 
ever, has  as  yet  little  tradition,  and  less  sci- 
ence, of  its  own.  Its  materials  are  not  less 
abundant  in  the  social  groups  about  us  than 
is  nitrogen  in  the  air  in  which  we  live;  but  the 
fixation  of  these  materials  for  practical  serv- 
ice, like  the  fixation  of  nitrogen,  is  a  problem 
which  may  well  tax  our  best  patience  and 
wisdom.  It  is  the  problem  to  which  this  book 
is  addressed.  Thus  Civic  Education  is  de- 
signed to  follow  the  ideal  of  service  as  ex- 
pressed in  the  motto  of  the  World  Book 
Company,  "Books  that  apply  the  world's 
knowledge  to  the  world's  needs" 


—  It 


8CE-2 


Copyright  1922  by  World  Book  Company 

Copyright  in  Great  Britain 

All  rights  reserved 

PRINTED  IN  D.  8.   A. 


PREFACE 

Hundreds,  probably  thousands,  of  the  teachers  and  others 
interested  in  schools  are  now  wrestling  with  the  problems 
of  civic  education.  They  believe  that  our  country  needs 
more  and  better  education  for  citizenship  than  it  is  now 
getting.  It  appears  to  them  that  our  public  and  private 
schools,  both  higher  and  lower,  have  thus  far  made  but 
partial  and  insufficient  contributions  toward  the  civic  knowl- 
edge and  idealism  that  our  country,  with  its  complex  eco- 
nomic and  political  life,  certainly  needs.  These  schools  do 
achieve  much  in  general  education;  but  of  purposive  civic 
education  they  give  little,  and  that  little  is  too  often  made 
futile  by  its  formalism  or  wasted  by  its  puerility. 

America  needs  more  and  better  education  for  citizenship  — 
to  that  proposition  all  will  give  ready  assent.  Many  com- 
missions are  studying  ways  and  means  of  civic  and  other 
forms  of  social  education.  Special  efforts  are  being  made 
everywhere  in  teacher-training  institutions  to  inspire  and 
equip  regular  or  special  teachers  for  this  difficult  work. 
Philanthropy  finances  the  "scouting  education"  of  the 
Boy  Scout  movement  in  large  part  because  of  its  promis- 
ing contributions  to  good  citizenship.  The  exactions  of 
the  war  and  the  economic  perturbations  consequent  on  the 
war  have  forced  us  to  see  that  our  political  institutions, 
serviceable  as  they  have  become,  are  not  fully  equal  to  the 
social  loads  they  must  carry. 

Hence  the  current  varied  and  intense  aspirations  for  more 
extended  and  more  scientific  civic  education  in  schools, 
especially  those  that  claim  our  children  from  their  twelfth 
to  their  eighteenth  years.  Statesmen  and  other  students  of 
social  life  are  insistent  in  their  demands.  Progressive  edu- 
cators are  generally  awake  to  the  need.  It  is  only  when 
we  try  to  define  specific  objectives  that  we  find  ourselves 


320 


iv  PREFACE 

in  a  jungle  as  yet  largely  unexplored.  Naturally  we  make 
little  progress  in  devising  effective  means  and  methods 
where  our  actual  goals  are  so  obscure.  It  does  not  take 
long  to  find  that  memorization  of  formal  texts,  and  rigid 
recitation  treatment  of  dry  didactic  materials,  will  rarely, 
in  present-day  school  life,  contribute  to  the  functioning 
habits  and  knowledge,  to  say  nothing  of  the  appreciations 
and  ideals,  that  blend  in  approved  civic  behavior. 

This  book  is  designed  to  aid  teachers  and  other  educators 
who  are  seriously  trying  to  find  and  develop  more  purposive 
and  effectual  objectives  and  means  of  civic  education.  The 
discussions  and  conclusions  here  presented  are  based  upon 
these  convictions:  (a)  that  the  aims  or  objectives  of  any 
proposed  type  of  education  must  first  of  all  be  derived  from 
studies,  essentially  sociological  in  their  nature,  of  the  needs 
of  contemporary  societies,  especially  as  evidenced  in  the 
adult  members  thereof;  (b)  that  it  is  just  as  practicable  and 
desirable  to  use  a  precise  and  specific  terminology  in  educa- 
tional discussion  as  in  other  fields  of  applied  science;  and 
(c)  that  what  should  properly  be  called  civic  education  is 
only  one  part  or  type  of  education, —  a  part  of  increasing 
relative  importance,  indeed, —  and  that  as  respects  specific 
aims  and  essential  methods  it  will  differ  greatly  from  other 
types. 

Teachers  and  other  educators  may  conveniently  and  not 
inaccurately  be  divided  into  two  classes  —  those  endowed 
with  some  ability,  possessors  of  some  disposition  to  be 
curious,  inquisitive,  inventive,  and  progressive  in  their 
work;  and  those  who  find  little  time  and  have  little  desire 
to  do  other  than  prescribed  and  routine  work. 

The  present  book  is  designed  for  the  former  class  only. 
The  writer  is  convinced  that  much  valuable  and  necessary 
work  in  education  will  always  have  to  be  done  by  teachers 
who  can  pretend  to  no  originality;  and  much  more  by  those 


PREFACE  v 

who,  even  if  endowed  with  some  gifts  of  creativeness,  are 
nevertheless  too  much  preoccupied  in  meeting  the  routine 
requirements  of  their  tasks  to  permit  the  development  of 
these  gifts. 

The  educator  who  can  do  little  original  work  may  be 
very  serviceable  in  well-established  fields  of  training,  in- 
struction, and  growth-control;  but  he  has  as  yet  little  place 
in  direct  civic  education.  The  field  is  too  new,  the  really 
serviceable  means  and  methods  too  undefined,  if  not  elusive. 
For  youths  from  twelve  to  eighteen,  at  least,  better  no 
purposive  civic  education  at  all  than  the  bungling  and  bruis- 
ing efforts  of  men  and  women  who  can  only  employ  the 
crude  didactic  tools  of  intellectual  apprehension  that  have 
evolved  in  connection  with  the  centuries  of  effort  to  enforce 
the  learning  of  foreign  languages,  mathematics,  and  history. 

Because  of  the  character  of  the  audience  addressed,  there- 
fore, the  writer  has  not  hesitated  to  introduce  numberless 
questions  and  problems  that  will  doubtless  require  years 
for  their  answer  and  solution.  Neither  has  he  refrained  from 
setting  forth  provisional  interpretations  and  solutions  where 
it  has  seemed  that  these  might  contribute  to  further  under- 
standing or  provoke  more  concrete  discussion. 

Each  of  the  first  two  parts  of  this  book  traverses  in  a 
measure  the  same  ground.  In  Part  I,  the  general  aspects 
of  the  problems  considered  are  presented.  Part  II  is  devoted 
to  a  more  detailed  study  of  certain  of  the  problems  found 
in  Part  I. 

Civic  education  will  for  the  present  be  largely  a  localized 
study  in  its  best  developments  —  that  is,  it  will  be  in  par- 
ticular communities,  schools,  or  under  particular  teachers 
that  its  most  significant  achievements  may  be  expected. 
Certain  portions  of  the  subject  must,  indeed,  like  good 
nature  study,  always  spring  from  local  conditions,  repudiat- 
ing  formal   texts   and   cut-and-dried   procedures.     Certain 


vi  PREFACE 

other  portions  may  be  based  on  manuals  and  texts  that 
ought  to  be  capable  of  general  use  —  of  which,  in  the  sub- 
jects of  civics  and  economics,  many  forerunners  have  long 
been  on  the  market.  For  the  present,  however,  each  school, 
or  at  any  rate  the  schools  of  each  progressive  community, 
must,  outside  the  more  formalized  subjects,  initiate  their 
own  efforts  and  develop  their  own  leaders.  Toward  such 
work  it  is  hoped  that  the  materials  of  this  book  may  prove 
helpful. 

The  reader  must  remember  that  we  have  as  yet  no  object- 
ive criteria  or  standards  of  educational  values  and  certainly 
none  in  the  field  of  civic  education;  hence  here  one  man's 
opinion  may  be  held  to  be  as  good  as  another's  —  and 
perhaps  a  "good  sight  better,"  as  the  recent  immigrant 
remarked.  The  history  teacher  will  almost  certainly  dissent 
from  the  evaluations  of  his  subject  found  herein.  He  will 
still  contend  that  history  as  a  chronologically  organized, 
compendious  subject  has  been  or  can  be  so  taught  as  to 
be  functional  of  civic  results. 

But  the  time  has  passed  when  the  partisans  of  any  par- 
ticular subject  or  group  of  related  subjects  can  claim  im- 
portant shares  of  school  time  and  energy  without  at  least 
indicating  their  attitude  toward  claims  of  other  subjects 
and  the  defenders  of  other  educational  values.  In  fact,  a 
very  heavy  burden  of  proof  should  now  be  carried  by  the 
special  pleaders  for  the  prescription  of  any  particular  group 
of  subjects  in  secondary  education.  Undoubtedly  all  the 
subjects  commonly  urged  for  inclusion  in  secondary  schools 
are  valuable  —  but  not  necessarily  valuable  for  all  classes 
of  learners.  The  disposition  on  the  part  of  all  specialists 
is  toward  each  having  his  own  subject  made  compulsory 
for  all  learners.  The  wealth  of  knowledge  now  available 
for  teaching  purposes,  our  increased  understanding  of  the 
variabilities  in  powers,  interests,  and  probable  future  re- 


PREFACE  vii 

sponsibilities  of  learners,  coupled  with  clearer  perceptions 
of  the  significance  of  educational  values,  justify  us  in  up- 
holding ideals  of  very  flexible  curricula  for  secondary  schools. 
Certainly  the  time  has  not  yet  arrived  when  we  should 
make  universally  prescriptive  in  secondary  schools  anything 
but  the  briefest  presentations  even  under  civics.  But  we 
should  develop,  according  to  the  resources  of  our  schools, 
a  wealth  of  elective  offerings  —  from  service  projects  and 
"scouting"  to  hard  problems  in  contemporary  politics,  from 
inspirational  readings  to  detailed  studies  of  the  historical 
roots  of  the  economic  and  other  social  problems  that  must 
vex  the  minds  and  try  the  souls  of  the  next  generation 
of  voters. 

D.  S. 


CONTENTS 

Part  One  —  Suggestions  to  Teachers 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.   Suggestions  to  Teachers:  Introductory  Con- 
siderations    1 

Social  betterment 1 

The  re-creation  of  social  groups 3 

Education  one  process  in  social  betterment      .  5 

x-  Current  demands  for  civic  education     ....  7 

The  example  of  vocational  education    ....  9 

^The  aims  of  education      11 

'The  aims  of  social  education 13 

Federate  groups  develop  needs  of  organized 

civic  education 15 

II.   Suggestions  to  Teachers  :  Civic  Education  in 

Secondary  Schools 17 

The     pending    reorganization     of     secondary 

education 17 

Results  as  shown  in  an  adult  citizen 20 

The  socially  efficient  man 22 

Educational  objectives 25 

Standard  of  social  worth      26 

The  meaning  of  civic  education      29 

Some  further  problems  of  definition 31 

Objectives  of  civic  education 32 

Justification  of  civic  education 35 

The  general  need  of  civic  education 36 

Society's  need  of  civic  education  in  schools  38 
Differentiations  of  the  specific  objectives  of 

civic  education 40 

Civic    education    and    the    teacher    of    social 

science 42 

The  province  of  the  social-science  teacher  .  .  44 
ix 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

III.  Suggestions  to  Teachers:  Miscellaneous  .    .  46 

To  rural  elementary  school  teachers 46 

To  teachers  in  small  high  schools 54 

To  teachers  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades  in 

urban  schools 57 

To  a  superintendent  of  schools 63 

Part  Two  —  Sociological  Foundations  of 
Civic  Education 

IV.  Introductory  Considerations 73 

V.  The  Sociological  Meaning  of  Education  .    .  83 

^What  is  education? 83 

Education  in  the  broadest  sense 85 

School  education 87 

Qualitative  distinctions  in  education     ....  88 

Classification  of  aims  based  on  social  objectives  89 

Physical  and  vocational  education 90 

Cultural  and  social  education 91 

VI.  The  Meaning  of  Social  Education 94 

Preliminary  analyses 94 

Conditions  of  social  education 97 

Some  problems  in  social  psychology      ....  99 

Some  educational  presuppositions      101 

Other  varieties  of  social  education 105 

Social  groupings:  Some  problems  summarized  107 

Social  evaluations Ill 

Crude  social  valuations 113 

Relative  standards 115 

Weighting  of  civic  qualities 117 

VII.   Society's  Need  of  Civic  Education 121 

Social  control 121 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTEB  PAGE 

Developmental  civic  education 122 

Needs  for  civic  education 125 

Contemporary  estimates  of  needs 126 

The  use  of  the  case  group  study  of  needs .    .    .  128 

Avoiding  excessive  abstractness      130 

The  direction  of  specialist  service 132 

VIII.   The  Objectives  of  Civic  Education      ....  135 

Methods  of  determination 135 

Determination  of  "civic  shortages" 136 

Civic  shortages  in  social  classes      139 

How  teach  principles? 141 

Adaptations  of  objectives  to  groups  of  learners  142 

Kinds  of  objectives  of  civic  education   ....  144 

IX.   Education  for  Democracy 146 

Sociological  conditions  of  democracy     ....  147 

Nature's  limitations      148 

What  is  oligarchy? 150 

What  is  democracy? 151 

Social  repressions 153 

Social  democracy 155 

Industrial  democracy 157 

^.Strivings  for  more  democracy 158 

s  Education  as  a  means  to  democracy      ....  160 

^  Education  for  democracy 162 

Democratic  education 164 

Part  Three  —  Problems  of  Objectives,  Courses, 
and  Research  in  Civic  Education 

X.   Means  and  Methods  of  Civic  Education    .    .169 

Preliminary  analyses 170 

Construction  of  courses 172 

Effects  of  school  environment 174 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB  PAGE 

Sources  in  social  practices  of  adults 177 

General  principles  of  method 179 

Specific  objectives 182 

Civic  prognosis 184 

Means  and  methods  classified 187 

School  discipline  as  a  means  of  civic  education  191 

History  studies 198 

Social  sciences  by  didactic  presentation    .    .    .  208 

Project  methods 210 

Developmental  readings 218 

"Problem"  methods 222 

XI.   Courses  of  Study  for  Civic  Education    .    .    .  236 

First  six  grades      237 

Second  six  grades 239 

XII.   Problems  of  Research      245 

The  "case  group"  method 245 

Needs  of  civic  education      248 

Extra-school  civic  education 251 

Values  of  school  subjects 253 

Related  problems 262 

XIII.  Freedom  of  Teaching  Social  Sciences     .    .    .  264 

Problems   of  freedom   in   teaching   the   social 

sciences 264 

What  is  meant  by  "teaching'? 268 

Realistic  cases 270 

Social-science  teachers      273 

Guiding  principles 275 

XIV.  Sample  Studies 279 

I.  (C.B.M.)     Proposed    courses    in     civic 
education    for    case    group    "owning 

farmers"      279 


CONTENTS  xiii 


PAGE 


II.  (A.L.McC.)  Proposed  courses  for  girls  of 

poor  environment 284 

III.  (A.R.)    Proposed   course   in   citizenship 

for  a  9th  grade 288 

IV.  (M.S.)  Proposed  program  of  education 

for  citizenship  for  children  of  Russian- 
Jewish    immigrants    (especially    ages 

12-14) 291 

V.  (C.C.P.)  Proposed  courses  of  study  for 

9th  and  10th  grades  for  a  type  group  301 

VI.  (R.A.C.)  A  plan  for  communicating  the 
spirit  of  America  to  the  foreign-born 
pupil  (ages  12-14)      307 

VII.  (M.E.D.)  Program  for  a  case  group  of 

boys  from  high-grade  environment     .   313 
VIII.  (R.W.H.)  Proposed  program  for  selected 

group 315 

IX.  (J.V.L.M.)  Proposed  program  of  civic 
education  for  apprentice  schools  in 
the  manufacturing  crafts  and  in  rail- 
road shops 320 

X.  (C.H.C.)  Problems  of  program  of  special 

civic  education  for  a  Chinese  group  .   322 

XI.  (P.F.V.)  Certain  problems  of  method      .   325 

Bibliographical  Note 330 

Index 331 


PART  ONE 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 


CIVIC  EDUCATION 


CHAPTER  ONE 

Suggestions  to  Teachers:  Introductory 
Considerations 

The  purposes,  aims,  or  objectives  of  all  education  find 
their  final  justification  in  the  increased  social  well-being 
which  results  from  right  education.  But  only  from  sociology 
can  we  determine  what  are  valid  standards  and  conditions 
of  social  well-being.  In  a  certain  sense  any  one  who  proposes 
enlargements  or  reforms  in  education  rests  his  case  on  founda- 
tions of  sociological  fact  or  assumption.  Consciously  or 
unconsciously  he  strives  to  express  himself  as  a  sociologist. 

The  sociologist  studies  human  beings  as  they  live  and 
act  in  groups  —  societies.  He  seeks  first  to  find  the  facts 
of  group  behavior,  and  then  to  control  the  structures  and 
processes  of  group  behavior  toward  better  ends. 

All  kinds  of  social  groups  or  societies  can  thus  be  studied. 
The  family,  the  business  partnership,  and  the  schoolroom 
class  are  societies  no  less  than  a  city,  a  nation,  or  a  race. 
Social  groups,  like  all  other  things  human,  may  be  good 
or  bad  (as  affecting  the  individual  or  collective  well-being  of 
men,  women,  and  other  sentient  beings) ;  they  may  be  incipient 
or  mature,  complete  or  incomplete,  efficient  or  inefficient. 

SOCIAL  BETTERMENT 

To  sociologists  (or  social  economists,  as  many  prefer  to 
call  the  men  and  women  whose  chief  concern  is  with  the  better- 
ment of  societies  or  helping  the  people  who  compose  them) 
even  more  than  to  other  well-informed  men,  human  societies 
seem  nearly  always  capable  of  improvement.  They  think 
largely  of  better  families,  better  nations,  better  economic  ar- 
rangements—  and    even    of    better    prisons,    better    schools, 

1 


2  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

belter  streets.  They  see  endless  possibilities  of  extending 
human  happiness  through  better  stock,  better  government, 
better  education,  better  economic  production,  better  worship, 
better  recreation.  (Perhaps  the  word  "well-being"  is  to  be 
preferred,  since  the  notion  of  "happiness"  seems  too  closely 
associated  with  that  of  "pleasure  as  an  end  in  itself.") 

Cooperation.  The  general  realization  on  earth  of  lives 
that  shall  be  richer  in  the  things  that  we  call  good  or  pleasant 
(in  the  long  run)  and  less  subject  to  the  things  we  call  evil 
or  unpleasant,  depends  above  everything  else,  as  sociologists 
see  it,  on  increase  in  varieties,  scope,  and  efficiency  of  co- 
operative action.  Throughout  all  his  history  man  has  been, 
indeed,  very  cooperative.  Some  of  the  structures  that  he 
long  ago  evolved  for  that  purpose  were  wonderfully  effective 
—  the  family,  the  clan,  the  village  community,  the  partner- 
ship, the  militant  nation,  the  worshiping  congregation,  the 
master-apprentice  combination,  and  the  buyer-seller  com- 
bination for  economic  exchange.  Some  of  the  social  proc- 
esses created  during  the  last  ten  thousand  years  are  as 
yet  too  near  to  call  forth  the  full  admiration  they  deserve  — 
processes  of  collective  defense,  of  administering  justice,  of 
invention,  of  recording  and  diffusing  knowledge,  of  exchang- 
ing products,  of  organizing  productive  effort  under  the 
corporation. 

But  the  very  increase  of  social  knowledge  upon  which 
we  now  pride  ourselves  reveals  endless  possibilities  still 
ahead.  Our  social  groups  are  like  the  bodies  that  nature 
gives  —  despite  their  fundamental  healthiness,  they  still 
abound  in  frailties,  they  are  very  liable  to  disorders,  and 
they  frequently  prove  unequal  to  the  new  needs  that  an 
evolving  world  imposes  upon  them.   To  the  social  economist: 

...  all  experience  is  an  arch  wherethro' 
Gleams  that  untraveled  world,  whose  margin  fades 
Forever  and  forever  when  I  move. 


INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATIONS  3 

THE   RE-CREATION   OF   SOCIAL   GROUPS 

The  most  important  social  groups  of  human  beings  resem- 
ble organic  species  in  this  —  the  groups  are  relatively  per- 
manent, whilst  their  individual  members  come  and  go. 
New  York,  France,  the  Mohammedan  Church,  the  Republi- 
can Party,  and  a  university  are  social  entities  that  have 
witnessed  the  infiltration  and  the  silent  departure  of  un- 
numbered members.  Even  that  relatively  transient  group, 
the  family,  with  its  usual  span  of  less  than  sixty  years, 
witnesses  periodically  the  accession  of  plastic  children  and 
their  withdrawal  twenty  years  later  as  shaped  adults  to 
form  new  unions. 

The  great  drama  of  sociology  is  thus  revealed  —  the  per- 
petual processes  by  which  every  type  of  social  group,  from 
a  boys'  gang  to  an  empire,  must  be  perpetually  renewing 
its  membership,  domesticating  and  training  its  recruits, 
educating  its  plastic  novices.  "The  world"  has  gradually 
accumulated  an  immense  stock  of  knowledge,  customs,  insti- 
tutions —  as  well  as  machines,  highways,  cleared  lands,  and 
subjugated  beasts.  All  this  wealth  —  the  social  inheritance  — 
passes  on  steadily  from  the  older  to  the  younger  generations 

—  with  the  hope  that  the  newcomers  will  be  able  to  appre- 
ciate and  wisely  to  use  the  ancestral  fortunes  and  in  due 
season  to  add  to  them. 

Not  only  is  all  this  true  of  those  vast  groupings  which 
we  call  "our  country,"  or  a  Christian  denomination  or 
civilization,  or  society-at-large;  it  is  no  less  true  also  of 
particular  social  groupings.  The  Methodist  Church,  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,  the  Independent  Order  of  Odd  Fellows, 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  the  New  York  Central 
Railroad,  the  Adams  family,  the  lovers  of  Mendelssohn's 
music,  the  Sierra  Club,  and  unnumbered  other  social  groups 

—  each  of  these  has  likewise  its  peculiar  social  or  associational 
inheritance  which  attaches  to  the  corporate  entity  and  is 


4  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

shared  in  by  each  new  recruit  as  he  reaches  the  full  stature 
of  responsible  membership. 

But  education  is  the  essentially  central  fact  in  the  drama 
of  socialization  —  the  processes  partly  of  inducing  each  new- 
comer in  society  to  enter  upon  his  inheritance,  and  partly, 
under  some  conditions,  of  compelling  him  to  do  so,  or  at 
least  of  forcibly  restraining  him  from  interference  with  others 
who  would  do  so.  It  is  the  drama  of  an  education  that  is  not 
of  schools  alone,  indeed,  but  is  carried  on  in  every  home, 
church,  club,  shop,  army,  play  place,  theater,  newspaper  office, 
police  court,  library,  and  convention  in  the  world.  Often 
these  educative  processes  are  unobtrusive  and  silent,  some- 
times they  are  sensational  and  shocking.  E.  A.  Ross  in 
his  book  on  Social  Control  has  surveyed  the  very  web  of 
processes  by  which  both  yoimg  and  old  are  educated 
toward  good  group  membership.  Sumner  in  bis  Folkways , 
Tarde  in  his  Imitation,  as  well  as  other  sociologists,  have 
shown  the  magnitude  and  complexity  of  the  processes 
historically  developed. 

Literature  and  other  art  loves  to  dwell  upon  the  individuals 
who  have  refused  tamely  to  submit  to  socialization.  Indeed, 
the  young  —  except  the  very  young  —  are  often  reluctant  to 
settle  into  the  harness  of  group  cooperation,  especially  into 
that  of  the  larger  groups.  At  all  times  and  everywhere  we 
find  those  who  wish  to  share  in  the  feast  but  not  to  pay 
the  price.  They  want  the  social  goods  of  family,  state, 
private  property,  culture,  and  personal  freedom  without 
making  the  personal  concessions  and  even  sacrifices  necessary 
to  "keep  up"  these  agencies. 

Civilization,  indeed,  presents  two  kinds  of  drama  —  and 
like  the  popular  shows  of  today,  the  performances  are  con- 
tinuous! On  the  one  hand  we  have  tens  of  thousands  of 
societies,  little  and  big,  accessioning,  disciplining,  domesti- 
cating, and  assimilating  new  members.    On  the  other  are 


INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATIONS  5 

millions  of  children,  youths,  men, and  women,  yielding  to  these 
socializing  processes,  but  eager  nevertheless  to  preserve  their 
own  individualities,  those  individual  souls  which  ancestors 
from  millions  of  years  back  projected  for  them.  Science 
must  here  search  always  for  the  golden  mean.  Humanity 
or  civilization  can  ruin  itself  just  as  certainly  from  too 
much,  as  from  too  little,  organization,  from  being  too  co- 
operative as  from  being  not  cooperative  enough. 

EDUCATION    ONE    PROCESS   IN   SOCIAL   BETTERMENT 

Education,  then,  in  its  multifarious  school  and  non-school 
aspectsT  devotes  itself,  now  to  making  strong,  resolute,  and 
aggressive  the  individual;  and  anon  to  making  him  submis- 
sive, kindly,  and  cooperative.  Now  in  one  of  its  varieties 
it  seeks  to  make  of  a~Tew  associates  loyal,  energetic,  and 
regimented  members  of  "small  groups"  —  family,  corpora- 
tion, club,  union,  sect,  or  party;  then,  in  other  varieties, 
it  seeks  to  produce  the  man  devoted  to  the  commonwealth, 
to  humanity,  to  the  service  of  God  —  the  patriot,  the  human- 
itarian, the  Christian. 

Without  number,  therefore,  are  the  purposes  of  education 
—  its  possible  aims  or  objectives.  Speculative  writers  often 
ask,  "What  is  the  aim  of  education?"  The  sociologist  can 
only  answer,  "There  is  none  —  none,  that  is,  distinct  from 
the  purposes  or  aims  of  life  itself  as  expressed  in  human 
tendencies,  or  in  civilization,  or  in  what  we  may  interpret 
as  progress." 

Education  is  a  matter  of  many  agencies,  and  not  of  schools 
alone  as  the  obscure  literature  of  the  subject  would  some- 
times lead  us  to  believe.  It  centers  most  heavily  on  the 
plastic,  the  formative,  years  in  the  lives  of  human  beings. 
Along  countless  channels  it  seeks  first  to  make  vital,  func- 
tional, possessive,  for  each  person  those  things  from  the 
general  and  particular  social  inheritance  which  he  can  "take 


6  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

on"  or  utilize.  In  highly  developed  special  forms  it  may 
also  seek  to  prepare  choice  spirits  to  add  to  the  world's 
goods  that  the  next  generation  may  be  the  richer  by  new 
knowledge,  new  beauty,  new  aspirations. 

Differentiation  of  education  in  purposes  follows  the  same 
lines  along  which  the  "goods"  of  society  are  differentiated  — 
the  social  values  or  worths  found  in  various  forms  of  security, 
health,  wealth,  righteousness,  knowledge,  beauty,  religion, 
and  sociability.  The  history  of  education,  as  well  as  any 
cross-section  of  contemporary  practice,  shows  hundreds  of 
avenues  along  which  men  have  worked  to  make  of  oncoming 
generations  competent  defenders,  workers,  voters,  thinkers, 
and  players.  By  numberless  means  these  have  been  fostered 
toward  being  healthy  and  strong  of  body,  fearless  in  battle, 
diligent  in  industry,  moral  in  family  life,  public-spirited  in 
the  community,  loyal  to  the  state,  reverent  toward  God. 

Neither  the  state  nor  any  other  social  organization  has 
yet  achieved  perfection  in  its  educational  processes.  In  a 
dynamic  or  progressive  society  it  is  safe  to  predict  that 
final  perfection  is  never  to  be  achieved,  since  new  and  higher 
goals  always  reveal  themselves  far  beyond  present  stages  of 
practicable  accomplishment.  But  it  is  clear  that  civilized 
societies  are  steadily  shifting  to  those  specialized  types  of 
educational  agencies  that  we  call  "schools"  a  constantly 
increasing  share  of  responsibility  for  difficult  and  complicated 
forms  of  education.  Agencies  other  than  schools  have,  in 
many  cases,  done  well  enough  in  the  past;  but  they  will 
not  suffice  for  present  and  future  needs. 

That  is  the  meaning  of  contemporary  demands  that  many 
and  varied  schools  shall  be  provided  for  vocational  educa- 
tion, instead  of  a  few  for  those  aristocratic  vocations,  the 
professions,  as  heretofore.  That  explains  why  contemporary 
social  economists,  forced  to  see  the  wastes  of  happiness 
resulting   from   physical   defect,    seek   through   general   or 


INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATIONS  7 

special  schools  the  varieties  of  physical  education  that  shall 
assure  to  the  next  generation  better  health  and  physique 
than  have  been  the  portions  of  the  present  generation. 

CURRENT    DEMANDS   FOR   CIVIC    EDUCATION 

And  that,  too,  explains  current  demands  for  civic  educa- 
tion in  and  through  schools.  America  needs  and  wants  more 
and  better  education  for  citizenship.  The  majority  of  adult 
Americans  are,  of  course,  not  bad  citizens,  as  judged  by 
historic  standards;  but  it  is  apparent  to  all  careful  observers 
of  social  life  that  the  task  of  citizenship  in  a  democracy  as 
large  and  economically  complex  as  ours  imposes  heavier 
responsibilities  every  year.  The  men  who  settled  the  colonies, 
and  those  who  built  up  the  states  as  frontiers  were  pushed 
westward,  were  in  the  main  good  citizens  for  their  times  and 
places,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  their  schooling  gave  them 
little  purposive  civic  education.  So  were  the  "Boys  of  '76," 
as  well  as  those  of  1812,  of  1861,  and  again  of  1898.  And 
when  the  latest  crisis  came  America  found  that  she  could 
confidently  rely  upon  the  higher  civic  behavior  of  her  sons 
and  daughters  to  play  a  fine  part  in  the  Great  War. 

American  life  —  in  the  home,  on  the  farm,  in  the  shop, 
and  even  on  the  street  —  together  with  American  education 
—  as  given  by  public  and  private  schools,  churches,  the 
press,  the  stage,  and  numberless  agencies  of  less  direct  influ- 
ence —  has  given  us  a  citizenship  that  on  the  whole  is  law- 
abiding,  progressive,  and  possessed  of  social  good  will  toward 
all  the  world. 

Future  social  evolution.  Why,  then,  do  we  find  statesmen, 
educators,  and  other  students  of  contemporary  social  life 
not  only  keenly  interested,  but  even  uneasy  and  urgent,  in 
promoting  more  purposive  and  more  far-reaching  civic 
education?  It  might  appear,  superficially,  that  they  were 
reflecting  severely  upon  the  ideals  and  achievements  of  our 


8  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

forebears.  At  bottom,  however,  that  is  not  the  case.  It  is 
true  that  for  purposes  of  propaganda  we  all  revert  occasion- 
ally to  historic  instances  of  corrupt  politics,  of  national 
greed,  of  the  ineptitudes  of  adolescent  democracy.  But  we 
are,  after  all,  not  blind  to  the  devotion,  honesty,  cooperation, 
good  will,  and  intelligence  that  have  made  America  what  it 
is.  Most  of  our  fathers  as  well  as  ourselves  have  been  and 
are  pretty  good  citizens  as  the  qualities  of  citizenship  must 
be  judged  by  proper  sociological  standards. 

It  is  not  the  past,  but  the  future,  that  now  concerns  us. 
We  are  anxious  not  to  lose  the  momentum  of  our  three 
centuries  of  social  evolution.  We  are  certain  that  the  future 
presents  difficulties  and  responsibilities  not  faced  by  the  past. 
We  have  grown  to  be  a  very  numerous  people;  our  free  lands 
have  been  absorbed;  our  raw  resources  have  been  largely 
preempted,  if  not  consumed.  Our  economic  life  has  become 
complex  beyond  all  previous  example,  and  our  economic 
interdependence  correspondingly  far-reaching  and  acute. 
Aspirations  for  "more  democracy"  —  political,  social,  cul- 
tural, industrial,  religious  —  increase  in  all  parts  of  society, 
and  thus  greatly  complicate,  if  they  do  not  arrest,  the  opera- 
tion of  other  means  making  for  social  efficiency.  In  a  hundred 
respects  it  is  certain  that  the  average  American  citizen  of 
the  future  will  face  responsibilities  calling  for  degrees  of 
intelligence  and  kinds  of  cooperative  effort  which  in  the 
past  have  been  demanded  only  of  a  few  leaders. 

The  civic  education  upon  which  we  have  built  this  republic 
has  been  largely  of  an  indirect  order.  Home  and  church  and 
school  inculcated  the  simpler  pre-civic  social  virtues  —  that 
is,  everyday  morals.  Public  and  private  schools  have  in- 
sured a  constant  increase  of  literacy,  which  our  forefathers 
were  right  in  believing  to  be  one  of  the  primary  foundation 
stones  of  good  democratic  citizenship.  In  spite  of  instances 
and  occasional  tendencies  of  a  harmful  character,  the  Ameri- 


INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATIONS  9 

can  press  has  contributed  immeasurably  to  the  upbuilding 
of  intelligent  civic  consciousness  and  ideals.  Scores  of  other 
agencies  have  been  at  work  —  even  including  commercial 
enterprises,  international  intercourse,  scientific  research,  and 
finally  war  itself. 

But  of  conscious  and  purposive  civic  education  based 
upon  a  clear  diagnosis  of  probable  needs  of  adults,  we  have 
had  heretofore  little  indeed,  beyond  the  instruction  in  ver- 
nacular reading  which  early  became  the  central  objective 
in  all  public  schools.  American  history  and  geography  in 
very  formal  and  somewhat  meager  measure  we  have  also 
included  in  elementary  school  curricula  primarily  for  the 
purposes  of  imparting  civic  vision  and  ideals.  Studies  in 
civil  government  and  community  civics  have  been  developed 
experimentally  in  progressive  schools,  but  so  far  neither 
specific  aims  nor  methods  in  these  subjects  have  been  at  all 
satisfactory. 

The  pressing  educational  problems  of  the  present,  then, 
as  regards  preparation  for  citizenship,  are  to  be  found  not 
so  much  in  the  domains  of  indirect  education,  as  in  those 
of  direct  and  purposive  instruction  and  training  toward 
clearly  defined  goals.  An  analogy  from  another  coordinate 
field  of  education  will  illustrate  this. 

THE   EXAMPLE   OF   VOCATIONAL   EDUCATION 

There  began  in  our  more  progressive  states  some  fifteen 
or  twenty  years  ago  a  movement  for  publicly  supported 
"vocational  education."  It  was  felt  that  many  youths  were 
deprived  of  opportunities  to  acquire  vocational  skills  and 
knowledge;  that  industries,  agriculture,  and  homemaking 
were  suffering  because  of  the  incompetency  of  young  work- 
ers; and  that  social  well-being  on  the  whole  was  impaired 
for  these  reasons.  It  took  time  for  us  to  gain  proper  per- 
spective in  the  campaign  for  vocational  education.    Finally 


10  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

the  following  conclusions  have  become  clear:  (a)  All  adults, 
now  and  in  the  past,  have  followed  vocations,  and,  since 
instincts  give  man  only  slight  immediate  vocational  powers, 
it  follows  that  all  these  adults  have,  by  one  means  or  another, 
received  vocational  education,  using  that  term  in  a  broad, 
but  sociologically  justifiable,  sense,  (b)  The  methods  of 
vocational  education  in  the  past  have  been  substantially 
of  three  kinds,  namely:  (1)  school  vocational  education, 
which  gives  us  about  5  per  cent  of  all  adult  workers,  chiefly 
physicians,  army  officers,  stenographers,  pharmacists,  engi- 
neers, agricultural  experts,  elementary  school  teachers,  and 
ministers;  (2)  apprenticeship  vocational  education,  giving 
from  5  per  cent  to  6  per  cent  of  all  our  workers,  chiefly 
printers,  locomotive  engineers,  barbers,  plumbers,  and  some 
carpenters,  machinists,  electricians,  tailors,  and  other  skilled 
artisans;  and  (3)  what  may  properly  be  designated  "pick- 
up" vocational  education,  giving  us  approximately  90  per 
cent  of  our  workers,  among  whom  must  be  numbered  nearly 
all  farmers,  homemakers,  factory  workers,  clerks,  and  casual 
laborers.  In  essence,  then,  the  current  "movement  for  voca- 
tional education"  is  in  reality  a  social  effort  to  substitute 
for  "pick-up"  vocational  education  more  effectual  forms  — 
that  is,  more  direct,  purposive,  and  pedagogical  forms. 

The  leaders  of  this  movement  do  not  condemn  as  worth- 
less the  vocational  education  of  the  past;  they  perceive  that 
it  has  brought  us  to  the  wonderful  stage  of  economic  devel- 
opment we  have  reached  today:  but  they  strongly  hold  that 
the  old  system  is  not  sufficient  for  future  needs,  any  more 
than  was  the  private  "  hit-or-miss "  literary  education  of 
former  ages  sufficient  for  modern  cultural  and  social  needs. 

Civic  education.  Similarly  must  we  interpret  the  current 
agitation  for  the  extension  and  improvement  of  civic  educa- 
tion. The  wine  of  the  new  citizenship  inevitably  demanded 
by  our  complex  social  order  can  no  longer  be  preserved  in 


INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATIONS  11 

the  old  bottles.  Domestic  and  community  virtues,  indispen- 
sable as  they  must  continue  to  be  for  "social  group"  solidar- 
ity, may  be  expected  to  play  relatively  diminishing  roles  in 
that  citizenship  which  must  increasingly  participate  in  a 
hundred  responsibilities  growing  out  of  "federate"  or  "large 
group"  social  activities  —  political,  economic,  sanitary,  cul- 
tural, religious,  and  even  martial. 

Sociologists  and  educators  encounter  many  obstacles  in 
planning  for  better  civic  education.  Perhaps  the  most  imme- 
diately baffling  is  the  prevailing  confusion  of  terminology. 
We  hardly  know  just  what  are  the  specific  objectives,  means, 
and  methods  that  we  are  talking  about.  Again,  while  it 
is  easy  enough  to  depict  general  needs  of  social  education, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  define  the  specific  needs  to  be  found 
among  distinguishable  social  groups  and  ages  of  learners. 
Then,  too,  available  means  and  methods  of  work  are  but 
poorly  defined. 

Hence  it  will  be  the  first  purpose  of  this  book  to  analyze 
those  essentially  sociological  problems  that  must  be  solved 
before  we  can  do  effective  work  on  courses  and  programs. 

THE   AIMS    OF   EDUCATION 

The  words  "civic  education"  should,  at  the  outset,  there- 
fore, be  made  accurately  descriptive  of  certain  distinctive 
objectives  and  procedures  in  the  total  scheme  of  education. 
We  need  not  only  a  positive  content  for  the  term,  but  also 
a  formulation  of  its  limitations  —  the  things  that  are  ex- 
cluded from  it.  (It  is  a  weakness  of  terminology  in  education 
today  that  many  of  the  technical  words  used  are  like  rubber 
bags  —  they  may  be  stretched  to  include  almost  anything. 
Educators  are  often  loath  to  say  what  their  favorite  shib- 
boleths exclude.) 

Either  by  analysis  of  all  the  qualities  found  in  an  approved 
type  of  adult,  and  segregation  of  those  due  to  education 


12  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

(school  and  non-school);  or  else  by  survey  of  all  types  of 
education  now  consciously  promoted  by  schools,  homes,  and 
other  agencies,  we  can  secure  a  conspectus  of  the  hundreds 
of  aims  and  procedures  that  can  properly  be  called  educa- 
tional. These  we  can  proceed  to  group  or  classify  as  is  done 
with  the  phenomena  studied  in  any  science. 

Within  the  entire  field  of  educational  objectives  toward 
"good  manhood,"  "good  citizenship,"  "social  efficiency," 
"sound  character,"  etc.,  these  classifications  may  be  based 
upon  the  principal  ends  controlling: 

(1)  Physical  education.  One  set  of  educational  procedures 
aims  primarily  at  promoting  development  of  body,  physical 
strength  in  general,  ideals  of  health,  special  physical  powers, 
recreative  interests,  beauty,  longevity,  health  knowledge  (per- 
sonal hygiene,  and  social  sanitation) .  Incidentally  —  but  only 
secondarily  —  these  aims  affect  vocational  success,  cultural 
success,  and  social  success. 

(2)  Vocational  education.  Another  set  of  educational  pro- 
cedures aims  primarily  at  vocational  success  —  in  terms  of 
the  skills,  technical  knowledge,  appreciations,  and  social 
ideals  required  to  succeed  in  a  specified  vocation  —  e.g., 
carpenter,  poultry  grower,  or  electrical  engineer.  Inciden- 
tally, these  aims  overlap  with  those  of  physical,  cultural, 
and  social  education. 

(3)  Cultural  education.  A  third  set  of  objectives  centers 
in  the  cultivation  of  those  intellectual  and  aesthetic  interests, 
appreciations,  and  non-vocational  powers  that  enrich  the 
personal  or  individual  life,  apart  from  social  or  vocational 
ends.  These  objectives  involve  chiefly  development  of  "high 
grade"  consumers'  appreciations  (in  art,  literature,  travel, 
general  knowledge,  history,  science,  and  the  like),  some- 
times accompanied  by  powers  of  "amateur"  execution 
(painting,  music,  craftsmanship,  research).  Cultural  educa- 
tion as  here  defined  has  incidental  but  not  primary  relation- 


INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATIONS  13 

ships  with  the  forms  of  efficiency  which  are  designated  as 
physical,  vocational,  and  social. 

THE  AIMS   OF   SOCIAL   EDUCATION 

(4)  A  fourth  set  of  aims  relates  primarily  to  fitting  the 
individual  for  successful  group  membership.  For  conven- 
ience a  man's  group  relationships  may  be  classified  as:  asso- 
ciate, federate,  and  spiritual.  Associate  groups  are  those 
where  personal  acquaintance  and  personal  contact  prevail. 
Neighborhood  rural  communities,  villages,  countrysides, 
towns,  clubs,  congregations,  crews,  camps,  partnerships, 
companies,  schools,  clans,  local  vocational  unions,  local 
political  party  groups,  etc.,  are  associate  groups. 

Federate  groups  involve  slight  personal  contact  of  mem- 
bers, hence  must  function  chiefly  through  delegates,  repre- 
sentatives, laws,  written  communication,  etc.  "Large  com- 
munity" (or  better,  commonwealth)  groups  —  cities,  coun- 
ties, provinces,  states,  nations,  empires,  federations,  alliances 
—  as  well  as  large  religious,  vocational,  cultural,  political 
party,  standard  of  living,  racial,  linguistic,  and  sumptuary 
groups  are  here  classified  as  "federate  groups." 

Spiritual  relationships  are  those  involving  primarily  God, 
departed  saints,  etc. 

It  is  obvious  that  any  social  group  can  function  in  defense 
or  other  vocational  cooperations,  in  recreation,  worship,  mu- 
tual culture,  race  perpetuation,  sociability,  etc.  Hence  while 
all  social  education  aims  toward  promoting  the  effective  func- 
tioning of  the  group,  its  aims  in  the  case  of  the  individual  are 
properly  limited  to  preparing  him  to  use  his  physical  strength, 
his  vocational  powers,  his  culture,  his  sociability,  his  marital 
and  parental  dispositions,  his  spiritual  leanings,  his  com- 
bative instincts  in  socially  effective  ways. 

(5)  In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  education  of  individuals, 
procedures  will  sometimes  be  found  which  cannot  well  be 


14  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

classified  in  only  one  of  the  above  categories.  Reading  as 
taught  to  small  children  will  later  function,  perhaps  equally, 
in  realization  of  cultural,  vocational,  and  social  objectives. 
Physical  play  in  some  forms  may  give  results  of  equal 
importance  to  physical  and  to  social  development.  But  in 
later  stages  every  scientific  tendency  in  education  is  toward 
differentiation  of  specific  objectives  as  a  condition  of  effective 
administration.  Such  differentiation  presupposes  classifica- 
tion and  comparative  valuation  of  ends  to  be  achieved, 
first  considered  with  reference  to  individuals  and  society 
in  general,  but  finally  with  reference  to  specific  types,  classes, 
or  grades  of  individuals  and  particular  societies. 

Kinds  of  social  education.  Within  the  general  field  of 
social  education,  then,  we  can  distinguish  three  large  divi- 
sions: (a)  that  which  fits  the  individual  primarily  for  good 
membership  in  family  and  non-political  associate  groups  — 
moral  education;  (b)  that  which  fits  for  membership  in 
political  and  all  other  federate  groups  —  civic  education;  and 
(c)  that  which  fits  for  religious  relationships  with  deity  — 
religious  education. 

The  evolution  of  early  social  life  took  place  chiefly  in 
connection  with  associate  groups  and  religious  relationships. 
Primitive  social  groups  were  small,  and  intergroup  relation- 
ships infrequent  and  of  the  simplest  order  —  usually  war 
or  barter.  The  evolution  of  federate  groupings  of  political 
kinds  —  phratries,  federated  clans,  expanded  tribes,  sub- 
jugated areas,  city-states,  provinces,  kingdoms,  nations, 
federations,  alliances  —  is  but  of  the  sociological  yesterday. 
Since  this  political  evolution  has  involved  terrific  strains, 
contests,  and  incessant  efforts  to  promote  "understanding 
at  a  distance,"  it  is  easily  to  be  understood  why  recorded 
history  is  devoted  almost  exclusively  to  the  politics  of 
"federate"  groups.  In  the  basic  evolution  of  social  qualities 
it  is  probable  that  the  village  ranks  next  to  the  family  in 


INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATIONS  15 

importance;  but  historians  find  little  to  record  in  the  cease- 
less interplay  of  social  forces  in  village  life. 

FEDERATE    GROUPS    DEVELOP   NEEDS    OF   ORGANIZED    CIVIC 
EDUCATION 

We  can  thus  again  interpret  current  public  interest  in 
civic  education  as  a  school  function.  Statehood  in  its  modern 
manifestations  —  nationalism,  municipal  relationships,  the 
province  —  affects  the  lives  and  welfare  of  men  as  never 
before.  Men  once  relied  heavily  upon  the  state  for  only  one 
function  —  security  of  life  and  property  against  external 
foes.  Later  the  state  became  the  chief  agency  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  legal  justice.  Now  we  depend  upon  it  for 
education,  road-building,  mail  carriage,  fire  protection, 
policing,  coinage,  and  the  supervision  of  scores  of  otherwise 
private  functions  —  banking,  meat-packing,  railway  trans- 
portation, sanitation,  and  many  others.  Some  of  us  want 
it  to  undertake  transportation,  house-building,  coal-mining, 
and  operation  of  "movies." 

But  it  is  not  merely  the  political  functions  of  society  that 
thus  become  complicated  and  of  momentous  importance. 
Many  strictly  private  functions  have  long  transcended 
village  boundaries.  A  large  part  of  modern  exchange  of 
commodities  takes  place  over  thousands  of  miles  of  distance. 
Wheat,  cotton,  coffee,  and  rubber  growers  sell  their  products 
a  third  of  the  way  round  the  earth  from  places  of  production. 
The  organized  daily  gossip  that  we  call  news  comes  to  us 
through  agencies  that  are  almost  as  impersonal  to  us  as 
machines.  The  workers  in  particular  fields  of  technical 
direction,  investment  of  capital,  or  manual  labor  unionize 
themselves  in  battalions  that  reach  from  one  boundary  of 
a  nation  to  another.  Worshipers  organize  themselves  in 
armies  that  overlap  many  nations. 

Science  and  invention  diminish  distance  and  other  bar- 


16  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

riers  to  social  intercourse,  but  they  so  multiply  and  magnify 
social  interdependencies  that  face-to-face  contacts  come  to 
play  a  negligible  part  in  many  of  the  most  vital  of  human 
relationships.  Current  aspirations  for  democracy,  seeking 
to  exalt  not  only  the  individual,  but  every  kind  of  individual, 
complicate  social  structure  and  processes  still  more.  Demo- 
cratic conditions  are  hard  enough  to  secure  within  primary 
groups  where  the  warmth  of  face-to-face  contacts  prevails; 
but  the  difficulties  are  enhanced  tenfold  when  distance 
begets  impersonality  and  the  social  magnitudes  to  be  dealt 
with  override  the  possibilities  of  personal  likings  and  "small 
group"  appeals. 

Hence  the  persistent,  even  if  only  half -articulate,  demands 
in  all  civilized  countries,  for  varieties  and  amounts  of  civic 
education  adequate  to  prepare  men  for  their  recently  de- 
veloped responsibilities  and  opportunities  in  the  social  order 
now  so  rapidly  evolving.  The  empires  developed  through 
conquest  in  the  past  were  indeed  complex,  but  only  a  special- 
ized "governing  class"  needed  to  be  educated  for  the  func- 
tions of  social  control  over  those  "large  groups."  Now  we 
diffuse  that  control  very  widely.  Civic  virtues  have  hereto- 
fore been  simply  the  moral  virtues  expanded,  but  that 
process  of  providing  for  democratic  social  control  of  right 
kinds  will  no  longer  suffice.  Society  must  address  itself 
more  than  ever  for  security  to  teachers  —  not,  in  civic 
matters,  so  much  to  teachers  in  general,  perhaps,  as  to 
specialized  teachers  of  civic  education. 


CHAPTER  TWO 

Suggestions  to  Teachers:  Civic  Education  in 
Secondary  Schools 

THE  PENDING  REORGANIZATION  OF  SECONDARY 
EDUCATION 

There  is  a  new  and  better  secondary  education  now  in 
process  of  formation  in  America.  The  historic  stereotyped 
high  school  subjects  of  study  are  being  examined  from  new 
angles.  Heretofore  it  has  been  a  matter  of  unquestioned 
academic  faith  that  their  educational  worth  was  great. 
Hence  educational  discussion  was  chiefly  concerned  with 
best  methods  of  teaching  and  testing  them.  Now  many 
educators  are  daring  to  question  whether,  after  all,  the 
study  of  algebra  is  so  important  that  all  high  school  pupils 
should  be  required  to  take  it.  Some  are  losing  confidence 
in  the  educational  values  of  French,  Ancient  History,  and 
Physics  as  now  taught.  They  even  suggest  that  the  objec- 
tives of  the  English  studies  ought  carefully  to  be  reexamined 
from  the  standpoint  of  ascertained  social  needs  and  learners' 
possibilities. 

New  demands.  In  the  meantime  new  demands  upon 
secondary  education  are  also  being  made.  Many  laymen 
as  well  as  educators  believe  that  the  public  high  schools 
especially  should  devote  far  more  attention  and  effort  to 
what  is  vaguely  called  physical  education.  Some,  still  hold- 
ing that  the  general  or  liberal  arts  high  school  should  concern 
itself  largely  with  "cultural"  education,  insist  that  more 
should  be  done  to  teach  during  adolescence  those  apprecia- 
tions, tastes,  and  special  forms  of  insight  that  raise  the 
levels  of  utilization  and  give  resources  wherewith  richly  to 
fill  the  leisure  hours  of  adult  life.  Vocational  guidance  and 
practical  arts  are  thought  by  others  to  be  of  much  potential 

17 


18  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

importance  in  secondary  education.  All  seem  now  to  be 
agreed  that  in  the  9th  or  10th  grade  there  should  be  a  course 
in  "general  science"  the  objectives  of  which  should  be 
essentially  "cultural"  rather  than  "practical,"  in  the  voca- 
tional sense. 

Demands  for  more  and  better  civic  education  are  a  part 
of  the  new  movement.  The  public  support  of  high  schools 
has  long  claimed  justification  on  the  ground  that  these  were 
essentially  schools  of  "good  citizenship."  This  claim  does 
not  now  stand  up  well  under  critical  analysis,  it  is  true;  but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  has  always  embodied  strong 
aspirations.  We  all  know  that  high  school  graduates  will 
furnish  to  society  a  far  larger  proportion  of  leaders  in  busi- 
ness, followers  of  the  highest  vocations,  and  men  and  women 
of  influence  generally,  than  will  those  young  persons  who 
do  not  enter  high  schools.  Naturally  we  desire  that  in  pro- 
portion to  their  opportunities  these  graduates  shall  be  dis- 
posed and  able  to  be  excellent  citizens. 

Now  there  are  many  prospects  that  we  are,  as  a  people, 
bent  upon  translating  our  aspirations  more  definitely  into 
programs  of  achievement  than  heretofore.  We  are  especially 
determined  that  more  of  the  social  sciences  shall  be  taught 
in  our  secondary  schools — under  which  term  are  to  be  included 
the  junior  high  schools  which  will  probably  increasingly 
replace  the  upper  grade  organization  of  the  elementary  school 
in  all  progressive  communities. 

In  fact,  we  are  seeking  something  more  comprehensive 
and  better  than  the  teaching  of  the  social  sciences.  We 
want  to  assure  better  civic  education,  whether  by  means  of 
formal  studies,  or  by  any  other  means  which  will  "function." 

The  proposed  "reorganization  of  secondary  education" 
may  well  involve  some  rearrangements  or  extensions  of 
departmental  teaching.  We  ought  soon  to  have  in  all  our 
high  schools  specialists  who  know  much  about  the  aims  and 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      19 

methods  of  physical  education.  Our  larger  secondary  schools 
will  certainly  have  specialists  in  vocational  guidance. 

Specialists  as  teachers.  Similarly  we  shall  certainly  tend 
to  evolve  a  professional  group  of  specialists  in  civic  educa- 
tion. At  present  we  usually  assign  to  teachers  of  history 
the  civics  subjects.  There  is  of  course  no  inherent  reason 
why  teachers  schooled  in  historical  studies  should  be  found 
specially  qualified  to  organize  and  administer  civic  education, 
even  though  the  historical  sciences  are  properly  to  be  in- 
cluded among  the  social  sciences.  But  many  "history 
majors"  in  college  develop  also  exceptional  interests  in 
economics,  political  science,  sociology,  and  other  social 
sciences.  From  them  will  come  probably  during  the  next 
few  years  a  large  proportion  of  the  departmental  teachers 
of  civics  and  other  subjects  making  up  the  courses  in  civic 
education. 

Let  it  be  assumed  that  the  reader  is  either  now  or  in 
expectancy  such  a  teacher,  employed  in  a  combined  junior 
and  senior  high  school,  to  organize  and  conduct  all  the 
specific  forms  of  education  directly  designed  to  produce  good 
citizenship.  He  has  had  several  college  courses  in  history 
and  a  few  in  economics.  Consulting  his  own  ease  he  would 
prefer  to  teach  history  only,  but  he  has  become  doubtful 
as  to  the  importance  of  history,  as  now  taught,  in  a  scheme 
of  civic  education.  He  would  be  glad  to  teach  high  school 
seniors  the  rather  formal  economics  which  he  himself  had  in 
college,  but  here  again  he  is  aware  that  economics  is  but 
one  of  various  means  for  vitalizing  civic  education  in  grades 
seven  to  ten  by  various  activities  or  projects  of  which  scout- 
ing may  be  regarded  as  simply  an  exceptionally  successful 
extra-school  example.  The  purpose  here  is  to  survey  the  field 
of  such  a  teacher's  work,  to  indicate  its  few  solved  and  its 
many  unsolved  problems,  and  to  suggest  means  for  the 
further  study  of  the  latter. 


20  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

What  should  be  expected  from  these  teachers?  What  will 
probably  be  their  problems?  Questions  like  the  following 
provide  serviceable  approaches  here: 

a.  What  is  the  meaning  of  civic  education? 

b.  What  are  the  present  needs  of  civic  education? 

c.  What  shall  be  the  objectives  of  civic  education? 

d.  Can  we  now  find  sociological  sources  or  foundations 
whereon  to  base  replies  to  the  foregoing  questions? 

e.  What  shall  be  the  methods  of  civic  education? 

/.  Can  we  now  find  psychological  guidance  to  the  discov- 
ery of  those  methods  and  also  to  the  testing  of  the  results? 

RESULTS   AS    SHOWN   IN  AN  ADULT    CITIZEN 

Assume  the  case  of  Mr.  B,  who  at  the  age  of  forty  is 
in  all  essential  respects  a  man  to  be  approved  both  for 
his  personal  and  for  his  social  qualities.  We  should  speak 
of  him  as  a  "good"  man,  or,  loosely,  as  a  good  citizen.  All 
his  admirable  qualities,  resting  on  foundations  of  good  hered- 
ity and  nurture,  reflect  the  education  to  which  he  has  been 
subjected  —  the  education  of  his  home,  church,  and  com- 
munity environment,  the  education  of  the  schools  he  has 
attended,  and  finally  the  self-imposed  education  of  his  later 
years  of  self-direction. 

Personal  efficiency.  On  the  physical  side  Mr.  B  possesses 
the  health  and  strength  essential  to  work  and  general  happi- 
ness. He  has  a  reasonable  knowledge  of  personal  hygiene. 
He  is  wise  enough  to  employ  expert  medical  service  when 
he  needs  it.  But  the  kinds  of  education  that  have  contributed 
to  these  qualities  cannot  properly  be  called  civic.  If,  how- 
ever, at  some  stage  those  who  taught  aimed  specifically  to 
interest  him  in  the  needs  and  possibilities  of  public  sanitation 
and  so  to  educate  him  that  later  he  would  consciously 
comply  writh  sanitary  regulations  and  laws  and,  in  addition, 
take  an  active  part  in  promoting  the  further  development 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      21 

of  these  forms  of  public  service,  such  education  could  properly 
be  called  civic. 

Mr.  B  is  also  vocationally  efficient  —  that  is,  in  whatever 
line  of  work  he  has  undertaken,  he  can  render  a  large  amount 
of  useful  service  with  relatively  small  expenditure  of  effort. 
As  a  result  he  can  "live  well,"  and  adequately  support 
those  dependent  upon  him.  But  here  again  we  must  recog- 
nize that  such  purposive  vocational  education  as  he  has 
received  cannot  properly  be  described  as  civic  —  notwith- 
standing the  tendency  of  careless  writers  sometimes  to 
imply  that  the  controlling  purpose  of  vocational  education 
is  "good  citizenship."  Apart  from  his  vocation,  he  will  of 
course  be  expected  to  render  public  service  —  perhaps  as  a 
soldier,  sometimes  as  an  unpaid  official,  and  possibly  often 
as  an  upholder  of  right  standards  of  public  behavior.  Toward 
these,  of  course,  civic  education  in  some  form  (including 
military  training  when  not  specialized  on  a  paid  or  profes- 
sional basis)  must  contribute. 

Again,  Mr.  B  possesses  a  variety  of  cultural  interests 
which  enrich  his  life,  enable  him  fruitfully  to  spend  his 
leisure  and  to  participate  in  the  "higher  life"  generally. 
His  fondness  for  some  form  of  music,  literature,  sport,  or 
travel  gives  him  diversion,  wholesome  recreation,  and  inci- 
dentally induces  him  to  associate  with  those  of  similar 
interests  and  to  contribute  to  the  advancement  of  the  special 
cultures  to  which  he  is  devoted. 

But  his  cultural  interests  and  powers  are  only  remotely 
related  to  his  moral  and  civic  qualities.  Highly  cultured 
men  sometimes  discharge  their  civic  obligations  very  badly; 
and  men  with  fine  civic  conscience  and  exhibiting  admirable 
civic  behavior  are  often  very  deficient  in  culture. 

This  brings  us,  then,  to  the  fourth  set  of  qualities  p  s- 
sessed  by  Mr.  B.  Assuming  him  to  be  an  "all-round" 
efficient  man,  he  will  add  to  his  physical,  vocational,  and 


22  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

cultural  efficiency  social  efficiency  in  the  more  specific  sense. 
That  means  that  as  a  member  of  social  groups  —  small  or 
large  —  he  will  be  a  good  conformist  and  a  positive  force. 
He  will  be  moral,  law-abiding,  cooperative,  friendly,  patri- 
otic, and  religious  —  a  good  "group  member."  He  will  be 
"strong"  and  "sound"  in  family  relations,  as  a  churchman, 
in  connection  with  political  parties,  and  as  a  promoter  of 
community  well-being.  These  qualities  of  'social  efficiency" 
will  incidentally  contribute  to  his  health,  vocational  success, 
and  cultural  growth;  but  from  the  standpoint  of  educational 
processes  all  history  proves  that  they  can  and  should  be 
made  ends  in  themselves. 

THE   SOCIALLY    EFFICIENT   MAN 

The  efficient  man  (or  woman)  as  we  know  him,  then,  is 
a  composite  of  many  parts  and  qualities.  One  set  of  these 
qualities  we  recognize  as  being  primarily  physical  —  physical 
health,  physical  strength,  physical  endurance,  physical 
grace.  Another  set  of  his  qualities  we  think  of  as  primarily 
vocational  —  the  skills,  technical  knowledge,  and  workers' 
ideals  that,  from  small  beginnings  acquired  between  twelve 
and  twenty  years  of  age,  have  grown  to  be  a  substantial 
part  of  his  total  character  and  productive  powers.  A  third 
group  of  his  qualities  we  describe  as  cultural  —  his  enduring 
personal  interests  in  good  speech,  good  reading,  good  music, 
good  pictures,  travel,  nature,  history,  refined  manners,  and 
the  like.  A  fourth  set  of  the  qualities  which  make  him 
worth  while  are  essentially  social  —  the  qualities  which  are 
directly  reflected  in  his  moral,  civic,  and  religious  behavior. 

Sources  of  efficiency.  Toward  the  production  of  the  array 
of  approved  qualities  found  in  the  man  who  is  socially  and 
individually  efficient  many  agencies  have  contributed.  His 
stock,  ancestry,  or  heredity  provided  the  foundations  of 
body  and  instincts.    The  conditions  of  his  nurture  shaped 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      23 

and  reshaped  these  during  the  entire  period  of  his  prenatal 
and  postnatal  growth.  Taking  him  as  we  find  him,  we  may 
safely  guess  that  his  parents  were  healthy,  intelligent,  moral, 
and  industrious  people;  that  they  insured  to  him  during  his 
prolonged  infancy  ample  food,  shelter,  and  rest;  and  that 
they  made  it  possible  for  him  to  have  an  abundance  of 
play,  association  with  others  of  his  own  age,  and  a  wide 
range  of  experience.  But  they  also  "trained  him  in  the  way 
he  should  go,"  forcing  him,  where  imitation  and  suggestion 
did  not  suffice,  to  "behave  properly,"  to  exhibit  decent 
manners,  to  work,  and  to  take  care  of  his  body. 

When  he  first  went  to  school  at  six  years  of  age  he  was 
already  well  advanced  in  the  ways  of  the  world  that  was 
becoming  increasingly  his.  He  had  acquired  vernacular 
speech,  numberless  motor  powers,  and  a  host  of  forms  of 
social  behavior  toward  parents,  older  brothers,  playfellows, 
adult  acquaintances,  and  strangers.  He  only  "played"  at 
work  as  yet,  but  on  the  cultural  side  his  home  and  neigh- 
borhood environment  had  already  given  him  many  likings, 
"dislikings,"  interests,  tastes,  appreciations. 

For  the  next  ten  or  fifteen  years  his  schools  played  a 
large,  but  in  only  a  few  particular  respects  a  paramount, 
part  in  making  him  what  he  eventually  became.  To  his 
early  schools  he  owed  almost  wholly  his  mastery  of  the 
mechanics  of  reading,  writing,  composition,  and  numbers. 

His  later  schools  did  much  to  increase  and  deepen  his 
knowledge  of  nature,  history,  other  languages,  and  literature. 
They  added  something  to  what  his  parents  had  taught  him 
of  hygiene  and  current  events.  By  the  groups  created  within 
schoolroom,  school  building,  laboratory,  or  library  he  was 
induced,  or,  if  necessary,  forced,  to  learn  and  to  practice 
new  forms  of  social  behavior.  Also  he  soon  adapted  himself 
to  the  various  social  groupings  growing  around  the  fringes 
of  his  schools,  his  home,  and  his  neighborhood. 


24  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

Growth  after  school.  Presently  he  went  to  work  —  partly 
voluntarily,  partly  under  compulsion.  Perhaps  he  belonged 
to  that  minority  who  find  opportunity  to  be  trained  for 
their  work  in  vocational  schools.  But  in  his  vocational 
school  or  in  the  pursuit  of  his  vocation  itself,  he  steadily 
acquired  new  appreciations  and  powers  —  primarily  voca- 
tional, but  secondarily  physical,  social,  and  cultural.  As 
he  matured,  new  instincts  asserted  themselves  —  sex,  voca- 
tional ambition,  religiousness,  honor,  desire  for  family  —  and 
these,  oriented  and  molded  by  his  environment  in  and  out 
of  schools,  eventually  gave  final  shape  to  his  personal  char- 
acter and  his  place  among  men. 

Any  candid  and  detailed  biography  or  autobiography  is 
a  picture  of  the  processes  suggested  above.  In  The  Edu- 
cation of  Henry  Adams  one  of  the  strong  and  sensitive  men 
of  the  last  generation  has  told  such  a  story  with  much 
literary,  and  some  psychological,  power.  Perhaps  educators 
should  often  read  many  kinds  of  biography  in  order  to 
see  their  own  contribution  in  true  perspective  —  something 
that  is  hardly  practicable  when  the  eyes  rest  on  school 
surroundings  exclusively. 

It  is  from  study  of  this  kind  that  we  can  best  analyze, 
classify,  and  eventually  evaluate  the  desirable  and  practica- 
ble objectives  of  school  education.  In  any  proper  sociological 
sense  of  jthe  Jerm,  education.. .derives_irom .many  sources 
besides^schools.  Schools  are  the  primary  agencies  of  educa- 
tion only  in  certain  limited  respects.  The  vernacular  speech, 
the  "small  group"  morals,  the  vocational  powers,  as  well 
as  a  large  proportion  of  the  cultural  tastes  and  interests  of 
our  fellow  men  and  women  were  chiefly  acquired  from  non- 
school  sources.  Schools  have  obviously  been  the  primary 
agencies  in  giving  powers  of  reading,  writing,  number,  and 
in  contributing  some  data  of  science,  history,  and  art.  How 
far  the  active  interests  of  a  typical  man  or  woman  of  forty 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      25 

in  literature,  civic  affairs,  contemporary  events,  and  recrea- 
tion are  traceable  more  than  incidentally  to  what  schools 
have  done  must  finally  be  solved  by  educational  studies 
more  detailed  and  far-reaching  than  any  we  yet  possess. 

EDUCATIONAL   OBJECTIVES 

The  first  and  fundamental  groupings  of  educational  ob- 
jectives that  arise  easily  from  a  survey  of  the  composite 
qualities  of  "efficient"  adults  are,  as  implied  above,  the  four 
classes,  physical,  vocational,  cultural,  and  social.  These 
classes  are  not  rigid  or  altogether  mutually  exclusive,  but 
for  the  present  they  will  serve  many  useful  purposes  in 
thought  and  communication,  provided  we  do  not  waste  time 
in  niceties  of  distinction  or  extent.  The  facts  of  physical 
and  of  vocational  education,  both  as  to  results  seen  in  adults 
and  as  to  methods  of  education  witnessed  during  childhood 
and  youth,  are  fairly  patent.  The  word  "culture"  is  itself 
so  ambiguous  that  difficulties  can  easily  arise  in  trying  to 
conceive  the  essentials  of  cultural  education.  But  it  is 
highly  serviceable  now  to  interpret  culture  (as  one  major 
objective  of  school  education)  chiefly  in  its  non-utilitarian 
and  largely  personal  aspects  —  as  having  little  connection 
with  vocation,  health,  or  civic  activities. 

The  "social  qualities"  of  a  man  express  themselves  in  his 
relationships  to  his  fellow  and  to  postulated  supernatural 
beings.  Each  adult  is  a  member  of  scores,  rising  to  hundreds, 
of  social  groups.  He  is  born  into  some,  forced  into  others, 
and  voluntarily  joins  still  others.  These  social  groups  may 
be  classified  conveniently  according  to  their  most  obvious 
social  functions.  In  relation  to  his  family,  the  efficient  man 
is  a  "good"  son,  brother,  husband,  father.  Among  those 
with  whom  he  works  vocationally  he  is,  according  to  cir- 
cumstance, a  "good"  servant,  employee,  foreman,  com- 
panion, chum,  mixer,  sport,  and,  perhaps,  gentleman.    As 


26  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

a  community  member  he  is  characterized  as  public-spirited, 
progressive,  safe,  law-abiding,  generous,  open-handed.  In 
relation  to  municipality  and  state  he  will  be  an  upholder 
of  the  laws,  a  conservator  (believing  in  conservation  of 
social  goods),  a  sound  voter,  a  willing  taxpayer,  a  good 
party  man,  a  good  worker  in  giving  unpaid  service,  a  "true" 
reformer,  a  "radical"  in  his  disposition  to  correct  vested 
evils.  Toward  his  country  he  will  be  a  patriot,  a  good  soldier 
in  time  of  danger,  a  helpful  counselor,  a  liberal  for  progress. 
Since  no  nation  can  live  unto  itself  alone,  the  socially  efficient 
man  reflects  also  certain  sentiments,  knowledge,  and  deter- 
minations in  spheres  of  international  action.  He  favors 
peace,  but  also  justice  and  the  "square  deal,"  as  between 
nation  and  nation.  He  dislikes  race  prejudices  and  fights 
their  promptings  in  himself.  Finally,  as  a  member  of  a 
society  that  includes,  by  hypothesis,  invisible  divinities  and 
malevolent  beings,  he  gives  to  God  reverence,  the  sacrifice 
of  worship,  and  conformity  to  divine  will  as  he  believes  it 
revealed  to  him. 

STANDARD    OF   SOCIAL   WORTH 

Any  type  or  species  of  education  that  is  directed  primarily 
toward  improving  one  or  many  of  the  social  relationships 
is  social  education.  History  abounds  in  examples  of  educa- 
tional efforts  to  make  youth  or  adults  better  sons,  fathers, 
servants,  employers,  mixers,  community  members,  patriots, 
worshipers.  Incidentally  these  efforts  may  enhance  wealth, 
vocational  proficiency,  or  personal  culture;  but  that  is  not 
their  primary  justification.  All  such  efforts  presuppose 
standards  of  group  "excellence"  —  as  fixed  by  custom,  even 
if  not  always  held  consciously.  Any  one  of  us  can  easily 
give  expression  to  conceptions  as  to  what  constitutes  a 
"good"  family,  vocational  grouping  (partners,  employees 
and  employers,  or  corporation),  community,  municipality, 
state,  nation,  world,  part}',  church,  or  social  company. 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      27 

Social  virtues.  There  are  certain  "virtues"  that  appear 
in  more  or  less  specialized  forms  in  various  social  groups. 
Truthfulness  is  apparently  a  relatively  essential  virtue  in 
all  group  life;  so  also  is  toleration  designed  to  unify  for 
some  purpose  individuals  largely  unlike  and  strange  to  each 
other.  The  word  "cooperation"  may  be  applied  to  virtues 
that  seem  to  possess  some  common  characteristic  but  which 
certainly  vary  in  such  groups  as  the  family,  the  nation,  and 
industrial  organizations.  Property  honesty  is  held  as  a 
virtue  wherever  it  is  important  for  the  group  to  increase  or 
conserve  individual  possessions,  especially  of  a  material 
character.  Only  in  some  group  relationships,  such  as  those 
of  husband  and  wife,  employees  and  employers,  and  a  gov- 
erning group  toward  individual  subjects,  does  "justice" 
become  an  important  virtue.  In  other  special  connections 
mercy,  piety,  chastity,  temperance,  and  the  like  assume 
importance  as  social  virtues.  Loyalty,  fidelity,  courage, 
kindliness,  are  of  many  very  distinctive  species,  according 
to  the  character  of  the  social  groups  in  which  they  are 
developed  and  prized. 

Experience  proves  that  individuals  are  often  more  or  less 
in  conflict  with  the  requirements  of  their  social  groups. 
Constant  friction  results.  The  individual  tries  to  escape  the 
group  or  to  lessen  its  control  over  his  action.  Everywhere 
about  us  we  see  children  rebelling  against  parental  control, 
party  members  "breaking"  with  their  party,  men  leaving 
the  church,  wives  divorcing  their  husbands,  employees 
striking,  partnerships  dissolving,  traitors  and  anarchists 
fighting  governments,  robbers  pillaging  the  community. 
Hence,  as  respects  individuals  we  get  dissent,  untruthfulness, 
revolt,  rebellion,  delinquency,  sin,  crime,  disloyalty,  and  the 
like. 

Social  coercion.  Nor  is  it  the  individual  who  is  always 
in  the  wrong  —  if  we  use  the  words  "right"  and  "wrong" 


28  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

to  mean  the  conduct  which  tends  respectively  to  make  or 
break  the  well-being  of  the  greatest  number  in  the  "long 
run."  It  is  easily  possible  for  the  group  unduly  to  coerce 
the  individual,  to  lay  too  heavy  a  burden  on  him,  to  cut 
off  possibilities  for  his  personality  —  either  physically,  men- 
tally, socially,  or  vocationally.  At  times  parents  expect  too 
much  from  children,  the  employer  exploits  the  employee, 
the  nation  unnecessarily  sacrifices  the  soldier,  the  local  com- 
munity browbeats  the  conscientious  member.  Art  in  all  its 
forms  —  but  especially  in  drama,  story,  and  song  —  re- 
hearses endless  tales  of  revolt.  Perhaps  this  is  because  under 
normal  conditions  a  heavy  burden  of  proof  lies  on  the  indi- 
vidual in  justifying  his  dissent,  self-determination,  or  revolt. 

Of  more  interest  to  modern  societies  at  least  are  the  com- 
petitive efforts  of  various  groups  for  the  contributions  that 
a  man  can  make  to  the  collective  success  of  each  group. 
The  time,  energy,  and  devotion  that  an  individual  can  give 
to  various  groups  are  obviously  limited;  and  many  of  his 
groups  are  often  in  potential,  if  not  actual,  conflict  for  what 
he  can  give.  A  man's  family  has  prior  claims  on  a  large 
part  of  his  economically  productive  effort,  his  personal 
devotion,  his  time.  He  may  easily  so  give  of  these  that 
he  is  niggardly  to  political  party,  church,  the  community, 
and  the  state.  Similarly  a  man  may  easily  so  center  his 
efforts  in  his  business,  or  his  "fellowship  societies"  as  to 
neglect  his  family.  Through  taxation  and  conscription  the 
state  may  assert  its  paramount  claims  in  the  interest  of 
public  safety;  but  it  sometimes  does  so  to  a  degree  that 
deprives  other  groups  of  their  just  dues. 

Competition  for  ascendency.  But  of  still  greater  moment 
is  the  never  ending  struggle  of  social  groups  for  ascendency. 
Nation  is  in  competition  with  nation,  church  with  church, 
party  with  party,  industrial  group  with  industrial  group. 
Also  state  is  in  competition  with  church,  sociability  groups 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      29 

with  vocational  groups,  municipalities  with  states.  Often, 
perhaps,  these  competitions  are  wholesome  rivalries;  but  not 
infrequently  they  become  tempestuously  destructive  or  in- 
visibly disintegrating.  A  volume  could  easily  be  written  on 
the  topic  "The  Struggle  for  Existence"  as  this  prevails 
between  and  among  social  groups. 

Education,  of  course,  can  only  work  with  and  through 
individuals.  In  fact,  group  action  of  each  and  every  sort 
finally  reduces  to  its  prime  elements  in  individual  human 
beings  who  must  successively  take  up  and  use  the  "social 
inheritance"  of  each  group.  Professor  Ross's  classic  book, 
Social  Control,  traces,  with  a  wealth  of  illustrative  detail, 
the  numberless  and  ever-active  ways  in  which  social  groups 
seize  upon  and  shape  the  oncoming  generations  of  individ- 
uals to  their  group  needs. 

Social  education  can,  as  before  noted,  be  well  subdivided 
according  to  the  social  relationships  it  is  designed  to  produce 
or  modify,  into  three  major  species  —  moral,  civic,  and  reli- 
gious. Under  even  the  more  exceptional  conditions  schools 
(leaving  aside  the  adjuncts  of  residence  and  recreation  in 
boarding  schools)  are  only  secondary  and  residual  agencies  of 
moral  education;  but  the  home,  neighborhood,  and  church 
may  prove  so  inadequate  in  civic  education  that  here  the 
school  may  yet  have  to  assume  certain  primary  responsibili- 
ties. For  the  present  schools  do  or  do  not  enter  the  domain 
of  religious  education,  largely  according  as  they  are  "non- 
public" or  "public"  —  that  is,  state-directed. 

THE  MEANING   OF   CIVIC    EDUCATION 

What  is  meant  by  civic  education?  Can  we  profitably 
assemble  its  objectives  under  citizenship? 

Citizenship,  as  the  term  is  loosely  used,  is  effected  through, 
or  affected  by,  all  forms  of  education,  in  school  and  out. 
This  is  so  because  the  word  "citizenship"  has  come  to  mean 


/ 


30  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

not  merely  the  exercise  of  civic  or  even,  in  a  more  limited 
sense,  political  functions  but  also  the  possession  of  basic 
qualities  which  condition  in  large  measure  the  exercise  of 
those  qualities. 

Indirect  factors  of  citizenship.  For  example,  a  man's 
success  in  his  vocation  or  his  potential  vocational  proficiency 
are  not  in  any  ordinary  sense  a  part  of  his  citizenship.  It 
is  clear,  however,  that  what  he  will  be  able  to  do  as  a  citizen, 
through  his  virtues  as  a  "follower,"  or  by  those  of  leadership, 
will  be  largely  conditioned  by  his  vocational  appreciations 
and  powers. 

The  same  applies  in  the  field  of  physical  health.  Health 
and  citizenship  in  the  ordinary  sense  are  things  far  apart. 
Nevertheless  it  can  well  be  held  that  the  man  who  is  physi- 
cally unfit  is  thereby  precluded  in  large  measure  from  the 
exercise  of  civic  responsibilities  and  functions  that  are  easily 
possible  to  the  physically  well  man. 

Similar  considerations  apply  to  those  areas  of  social  life 
involving  what  for  the  sociologist  are  the  "small  group" 
relationships.  Education  for  citizenship  normally  would  not 
include  education  for  family  membership.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  the  man  whose  family  membership  is  open 
to  serious  social  criticism  is  thereby  impaired  as  to  his 
abilities  to  exercise  civic  functions. 

The  words  "citizen"  and  "citizenship"  may,  therefore, 
be  probably  too  inclusive,  too  confused  with  varied  conno- 
tations, to  be  profitably  employed  as  embracing  only  the 
proper  objectives  of  civic  education.  We  must  wait  and  see 
whether  popular  usage  will  have  its  way  here;  we  may  be 
forced  to  admit  that  all  good  education  contributes  to  the 
making  of  the  appro vable  "citizen"  —  it  is  all  good  "Ameri- 
canism," perhaps.  But  we  need  not  thus  extend  the  useful 
words  "civic  education." 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      31 

SOME   FURTHER    PROBLEMS    OF    DEFINITION 

It  is  necessary  to  recognize  that  there  are  many  kinds 
of  education,  because  there  are  many  kinds  of  results  to 
be  achieved  through  education.  Schools  teach  handwriting, 
dancing,  and  a  foreign  language  toward  very  unlike  ends. 
The  methods  employed  also  differ  greatly.  Similarly  such 
more  generalized  forms  of  education  as  physical  and  voca- 
tional must  differ  fundamentally  not  only  in  practical  pur- 
pose but  in  essential  methods  as  well. 

Unfortunately  these  distinctions  are  not  willingly  accepted 
in  the  present  state  of  educational  discussion.  Con- 
fusion also  arises  from  present  tendencies  everywhere  to 
"stretch"  the  values  of  education.  It  is  claimed  that  ath- 
letics are  valuable  means  of  education  for  citizenship;  that 
the  study  of  mathematics  makes  a  "clear- thinking  citizen"; 
that  music  should  be  studied  as  a  means  of  civic  education. 

Various  purposes  of  education.  For  the  sake  of  practical 
efficiency  in  their  work  educators  must  learn  to  consider 
separately  the  various  specific  purposes  that,  at  any  given 
age,  should  control  at  least  all  direct  and  purposive  educa- 
tion. In  no  other  way  can  efficient  means  and  methods 
be  devised.  In  all  other  affairs  of  civilized  life  we  recognize 
that  one  (and  almost  always  only  one)  primary  purpose  should 
determine  and  control  a  given  course  of  action.  A  factory 
or  any  given  part  of  it  is  erected  to  produce  a  specified 
product.  There  may  indeed  be  many  by-products,  just  as 
there  may  be  in  education.  A  child  being  taught  hand- 
writing may  be  getting  as  by-products  some  physical  and 
moral  training  in  the  process;  but  the  essential  reasons  for 
painstaking  drill  in  handwriting  are  not  to  be  found  in 
any  aspect  of  .either  physical  or  moral  education. 

Let  us  therefore  recognize  at  the  outset  the  special  province 
of  civic  education.    Because  of  its  indeterminateness  let  us 


32  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

use  the  term  "citizenship"  as  little  as  practicable,  and  then 
only  in  the  limited  sense  heretofore  specified. 

First,  civic  education  does  not  include  training  in  reading, 
spelling,  handwriting,  or  simple  arithmetic,  or  in  other  funda- 
mental processes  such  as  drawing,  the  reading  of  a  foreign 
language,  or  forms  of  laboratory  manipulation.  It  includes 
none  of  the  primary  forms  of  physical  or  vocational  educa- 
tion. Finally,  it  excludes  many  forms  of  cultural  education 
where  the  controlling  purpose  is  to  establish  enduring  inter- 
ests of  an  aesthetic  or  intellectual  nature  toward  the  enrich- 
ment of  the  individual  life. 

OBJECTIVES   OF   CIVIC    EDUCATION 

The  special  objectives  of  civic  education,  then,  have  to 
do  largely  with  political  and  other  "large  group"  member- 
ship, including  compliance  with  laws  of  state,  municipality, 
etc.   These  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

a.  The  promotion  of  the  appreciations,  ideals,  attitudes, 
and  minor  amounts  of  understanding  necessary  to  procure 
conformity  to  legal  and  other  directions  and  restraints,  such 
conformity  being  always  measured  in  terms  of  specific  forms 
of  social  activity,  such  as  honesty  in  property  relationships, 
obedience  to  traffic  laws,  etc. 

b.  Promotion  of  the  kinds  and  degrees  of  devotion  to 
country,  city,  town,  and  other  political  groupings  as  col- 
lective social  entities  with  a  view  to  insuring  the  welfare 
of  the  commonwealth  and  the  community.  One  species  of 
these  types  of  devotion  can  well  be  called  patriotism,  but 
there  are  others  which  can  easily  be  distinguished. 

c.  Training  in  dispositions  and  abilities  to  participate 
actively  in  parties,  volunteer  service,  and  other  activities 
of  a  positive  nature  designed  to  promote  the  public  wel- 
fare. 

d.  Training  in  dispositions  to  advance  the  state  directly 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      33 

by  good  service  in  family,  vocational,  religious,  and  other 
non-political  social  groupings. 

Studies  of  adults.  The  actual  objectives  of  civic  education 
under  the  above  heads  will  often  best  be  understood  by 
social  science  teachers  through  studies  of  adults  now  com- 
posing any  particular  type  of  society.  The  methods  of  such 
study,  as  discussed  more  at  length  elsewhere,  may  be  called 
"case  group  methods."  The  kinds  of  groups  that  may  well 
be  studied  by  educators  will  be  variable.  For  some  purposes 
it  may  seem  well  to  take  regional  groups,  for  others  occupa- 
tional, and  for  still  others  racial  groups.  From  another 
standpoint  groupings  might  be  made  on  the  basis  of  culture, 
sex,  or  age  and  will  further  subdivide  on  the  basis  of  com- 
binations of  two  or  more  of  the  foregoing  qualifying  condi- 
tions. The  following  are  typical  of  the  questions  that  suggest 
studies  of  this  kind. 

a.  Rating  citizens  on  the  basis  of  their  civic  qualities  in 
five  groups  as  excellent,  superior,  average,  inferior,  and  poor 
and  for  the  present  assuming  the  application  of  the  same 
standards  to  all  groups,  what  are  the  proportions  of  citizens 
of  each  rank  or  grade  in  the  city  of  A? 

b.  What  proportions  respectively  among  1000  women  fac- 
tory workers  in  that  city? 

c.  What  proportions  respectively  among  men  of  at  least 
high  school  education  now  in  business? 

d.  What  proportions  respectively  among  100  negro  manual 
workers  of  ages  30-50  in  the  given  area? 

The  foregoing  analysis  presupposes  a  composite  estimate 
of  civic  qualities.  Many  kinds  of  refinements  are  possible. 
For  example,  the  various  groups  could  be  rated  purely  with 
regard  to  their  compliance  with  the  laws  of  the  common- 
wealth or  nation ;  or  with  reference  to  their  activity  in  party 
politics;  or  with  reference  to  their  disposition  to  initiate 
civic  reform  movements. 


34  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

Variable  civic  potentialities.  It  is  evident,  however,  that 
such  ratings  of  citizens  will  be  limited  in  usefulness  because 
they  presuppose  uniform  potential  civic  powers.  Society 
has  a  right  to  expect  that  100  men  who  have  had  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  native  abilities  and  environments  that  enable 
them  to  graduate  from  college  shall  be  held  for  very  different 
amounts  and  kinds  of  civic  virtue  from  those  who  have 
had  no  such  advantages.  Consequently  a  still  more  com- 
plete system  of  evaluating  citizenship  would  suggest  ques- 
tions like  the  following: 

a.  In  terms  of  the  standards  of  civic  worth  deemed  appro- 
priate by  a  competent  jury  for  men  who  are  college  grad- 
uates, who  are  successful  in  business,  and  who  are  from  SO 
to  50  years  of  age,  what  are  the  relative  proportions  of  men 
of  each  civic  grade  found  in  100  college  graduates  of  this 
description  in  the  city  of  B? 

b.  In  terms  of  civic  standards  appropriate  to  unmarried, 
negro  manual  workers  in  Northern  cities  of  from  25  to  40 
years  of  age,  what  are  the  proportions  of  good  citizens,  as 
judged  only  with  reference  to  compliance  with  laws,  found 
among  100  negroes  chosen  at  random  in  the  city  of  C? 

Ultimately  for  studies  of  this  character  we  must  derive 
not  only  the  qualities  of  civic  worth  that  shall  be  sought 
through  school  education  but  standards  of  reasonable  expec- 
tancy of  civic  virtues  for  different  social  classes. 

Such  analysis  may  reveal,  for  example,  that  negro  children 
of  less  than  average  intelligence  in  our  public  schools  should, 
between  the  ages  of  12  and  15,  be  trained  in  compliance 
with  laws,  given  ideals  of  good  conforming  citizenship,  and 
given  considerable  drill  in  the  most  simple  of  economic 
principles. 

On  the  other  hand  in  a  junior  high  school  offering  a  con- 
siderable range  of  electives  in  social  science  subjects,  the 
kinds  of  civic  instruction  that  would  be  provided  and  recom- 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      35 

mended  for  those  brighter  and  better  circumstanced  indi- 
viduals who  will  very  probably  go  through  high  school  and 
into  college  and  thence  into  the  higher  vocations,  might 
well  include  training  in  "reasoning  about"  a  large  number 
of  debatable  problems  in  social  sciences,  as  well  as  a  very 
considerable  experience  of  the  kind  of  leadership  that  scout- 
ing and  community  service  work  provide. 

JUSTIFICATION   OF   CIVIC    EDUCATION 

Why,  to  what  extent,  and  toward  what  specific  goals  or 
objectives  does  modern  society,  and  conspicuously  that  of 
America,  need  more  and  better  civic  education?  Sooner  or 
later  we  must  be  able  to  give  reasonably  scientific  answers 
to  this  question. 

Our  popular  faiths  here  are  important.  They  serve  as 
Pole  Star  ideals  of  orientation  at  least,  even  if  they  give 
no  idea  of  distances  or  character  of  courses.  Let  us  review 
some  of  them: 

Our  state,  its  governmental  institutions,  and  our  individual 
relations  to  these  rest  on  constitutions,  representative  gov- 
ernment, general  suffrage,  and  ideals  of  democracy.  In  all 
respects  these  tend  to  exalt  the  place  and  importance  of  the 
individual,  which  means  more  specifically  all  kinds  of  indi- 
viduals —  good  and  bad,  informed  and  uninformed,  far- 
sighted  or  short-sighted,  "little  group"  minded  or  "big 
group"  minded.  More  than  under  other  political  systems 
the  average  man  in  America  is  able  to  help  the  welfare  of 
his  fellows  throughout  the  state  according  to  the  degree  to 
which  he  is  "able-minded"  and  rightly  predisposed. 

Hence  one  need  of  more  and  better  civic  education,  even 
than  that  which  gave  us  the  boys  of  '76,  of  1861,  and  of 
1917.  Good  citizens,  in  some  cases  very  good  citizens,  can 
still  be  made  when  the  school  only  adds  literacy  and  a  slight 
knowledge  of  American  history  and  geography  to  the  moral 


36  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

and  civic  virtues  learned  from  the  home,  the  church,  neigh- 
borhood associations,  shop  and  farm  work,  and  apprentice- 
ship participation  in  politics.  But  quite  apart  from  other 
considerations,  it  is  desirable,  as  in  the  case  of  hygiene, 
that  we  reduce  mortality  and  morbidity  rates.  We  should, 
and  through  proper  education  we  probably  can,  reduce  the 
proportions,  at  any  level,  of  Grades  C  and  D  citizens  and 
increase  the  proportions  of  Grades  A  and  B  citizens.  We 
can  do  this  not  so  much,  perhaps,  by  following  the  methods 
of  extra-school  civic  education,  as  in  definitely  supplementing 
with  specific  new  objectives. 

THE   GENERAL   NEED   OF   CIVIC    EDUCATION 

How  would  the  sociologist  determine  the  needs  of  civic 
education  at  any  time  and  in  any  given  society? 

He  would  first  define  what  is  meant  by  the  civic  virtues 
as  these  show  themselves  in  the  behavior  of  adults.  Any  one 
can  readily  enumerate  scores  of  these  virtues  by  name.  It 
is  hard,  of  course,  to  avoid  the  use  of  excessively  abstract 
words  in  describing  them,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  for 
even  the  sociologist  as  yet  to  indicate  their  relative  im- 
portance in  any  quantitative  way. 

It  helps  here  to  classify  some  civic  virtues  as  "virtues  of 
conformity"  and  others  as  virtues  of  initiative.  Obeying  the 
laws,  conforming  to  the  ordinary  requirements  of  the  social 
order,  and  accepting  gracefully  the  conscript ive  requirements 
of  society  —  to  attend  school,  serve  in  the  army,  serve  on 
juries,  pay  taxes  —  are  among  the  conformist  virtues.  But 
forcing  others  to  obey  the  laws,  forming  parties  to  effect 
particular  reforms,  and  scrutinizing  the  acts  of  officials  are 
among  the  virtues  of  initiative. 

We  often  need  still  more  special  definitions.  What  is 
meant  by  "good"  political  party  membership,  and  what  is 
the  importance  of  various  forms  of  party  behavior?    What 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      37 

is  the  relative  importance  in  good  citizenship  of  strict  com- 
pliance with  the  laws  bearing  on  corrupt  politics  and  those 
governing  automobile  traffic? 

Such  definitions  should  clearly  indicate  the  relations  that 
are  assumed  to  exist  between  the  specific  civic  virtues  and 
the  basic  qualities  (e.g.,  of  health,  vocational  proficiency, 
general  education,  personal  morality,  etc.)  which  are  sup- 
posed to  condition  them. 

Civic  shortages.  Next  the  sociologist  would  study  some 
fairly  distinctive  social  group  in  order  to  ascertain  the  most 
conspicuous  "shortages"  of  civic  virtues,  the  correction  of 
which  in  the  oncoming  generation  could  be  made  the  pur- 
pose of  at  least  part  of  some  immediately  practicable  pro- 
grams of  civic  education.  Some  of  these  groups  are  referred 
to  on  page  109. 

The  analogies  here  to  sound  schemes  of  physical  education 
are  many.  Certainly  the  various  specific  objectives  of  such 
a  scheme  should  be  based  upon  ascertained  deficiencies  in 
the  health  or  physique  of  known  groups  of  people.  For 
example,  if  it  is  found  that  in  certain  areas  farmers  in  large 
numbers  suffer  much  ill-health  traceable  to  dietetic  ignorance, 
then  one  specific  objective  of  instruction  in  hygiene  for  the 
next  generation  is  at  once  suggested.  If  the  adult  workers 
in  certain  vocations  suffer  malformations  that  could  have 
been  prevented  by  earlier  specific  physical  training,  then 
another  objective  is  defined. 

Sociologists  have  already  made  large  progress  in  diagnosing 
social  deficiencies;  but  educators  have  as  yet  made  practi- 
cally no  use  of  that  knowledge  in  defining  objectives  of 
school  procedures  to  counteract  these.  This  is  no  less  true 
in  civic  education  than  in  the  fields  of  the  modern  languages, 
vocational  education,  and  instruction  in  the  sciences. 


38  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

society's  need  of  civic  education  in  schools 

What  are  the  evidences  of  the  need  for  civic  education 
in  schools? 

To  discover  these  needs  it  is  desirable  that  we  first  proceed 
to  evaluate  civic  education  of  non-school  agencies  such  as 
family,  church,  neighborhood  environment,  party,  and 
vocation.  In  all  of  these  cases  we  are  dealing  principally 
with  what  Cooley  calls  primary  groups.  These  agencies  are 
very  effective  for  particular  forms  of  moral  education.  They 
cultivate  the  soil  out  of  which  may  be  expected  to  spring 
some  "large  group"  virtues.  But  modern  social  organization 
makes  increasing  demands  for  the  civic  virtues  of  political 
and  other  large  groups  which  these  primary  associations  do 
not  adequately  meet. 

Criminality  as  a  measure.  The  general  prevalence  of  crime 
is  sometimes  urged  as  a  reason  for  civic  education  through 
schools.  Ordinarily,  however,  pleas  put  on  this  basis  overlook 
certain  social  facts.  On  the  one  hand  criminal  classes  are 
recruited  very  largely  from  family  and  other  small  groups 
that  are  themselves  socially  deficient.  On  the  other  hand 
criminal  classes  show  an  abnormal  proportion  of  mental  sub- 
normality.  More  and  better  education  could  undoubtedly 
reduce  the  proportion  of  criminals,  but  to  be  effective  it 
would  have  to  be  specialized  education  at  least  for  all  ages 
upwards  of  10  or  11.  It  will  have  to  be  specialized  in  the 
first  place  to  offset  the  disadvantages  of  home  environment. 
In  the  second  place  it  will  have  to  be  specialized  in  order 
to  make  the  most  of  deficient  mental  powers. 

But  the  real  needs  of  civic  education  must  be  considered 
first  of  all  with  respect  to  the  70  to  90  per  cent  of  adult 
men  and  women  of  the  country  today  who  already  compose 
a  body  of  moderately  good  but  not  sufficiently  good  citizens. 
The  needs  of  civic  education  are  sometimes  derived  from 
study  of  contemporary  politics.    It  requires  no  very  compe- 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      39 

tent  powers  of  observation  to  see  in  contemporary  politics 
much  of  inefficiency,  indifference,  and  even  corruption.  So 
far,  however,  no  satisfactory  evidence  has  been  adduced  to 
show  that  persons  who  have  received  the  smallest  amounts 
of  civic  education  now  offered  are,  relatively  to  their  abilities 
and  opportunities,  inferior  in  civic  virtues  to  those  who 
have  received  large  amounts  of  such  education.  It  is  not 
certain,  for  example,  that  the  college  graduates  of  America, 
having  in  view  their  superior  native  abilities  and  the  excel- 
lent environment  in  which  they  were  reared,  are  propor- 
tionately better  in  civic  virtues  than  less  fortunate  citizens 
in  other  classes. 

Growing  complexity  of  social  life.  Much  more  satisfactory 
are  the  arguments  growing  out  of  the  increasing  complexity 
of  social  life  on  the  one  hand,  and  increasing  needs  for 
democracy  on  the  other.  Our  modern  economic  life  has 
become  enormously  specialized,  and  the  component  com- 
munity and  other  groups  in  our  society  are  interdependent 
in  degrees  that  did  not  exist  formerly.  But  social  control 
must  extend  over  the  larger  groups  and  the  functions  of 
government  are  obviously  becoming  more  complex.  It  is 
therefore  a  fair  inference  that  society  must  find  in  all,  or  at 
least  in  some  of  its  members,  powers  of  civic  understanding 
and  action  far  surpassing  those  formerly  called  for. 

Another  set  of  valid  arguments  can  be  built  upon  modern 
conceptions  of  social  economics.  Our  ancestors  could,  largely 
because  they  must,  tolerate  high  mortality  and  morbidity 
rates  as  well  as  much  poverty  and  general  social  deficiency. 
One  large  goal  of  modern  society  is  the  lessening  of  these 
various  sources  of  personal  unhappiness.  We  are  striving 
steadily  to  lessen  the  rate  of  disease  and  to  prevent  thriftless- 
ness  and  low  efficiency  generally. 

For  exactly  the  same  reasons  modern  social  economics 
aims  to  lower  the  ratios  of  lawless,  vicious,  and  corrupt  in 


40  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

all  social  groups.  Our  forefathers  could  tolerate  a  certain 
amount  of  venality  in  politics,  perhaps  because  they  were 
indifferent  or  perhaps  because  they  were  powerless  to  prevent 
it.  We  have  set  ourselves  higher  standards,  and  civic  edu- 
cation becomes  one  of  the  means  of  achieving  them. 

DIFFERENTIATIONS    OF    THE    SPECIFIC     OBJECTIVES    OF    CIVIC 
EDUCATION 

As  stated  earlier,  by  "objectives"  is  here  meant  something 
more  than  aims,  purposes,  or  intentions.  Rather  the  term 
means  the  "goals"  to  be  realized,  the  achievements  and 
attainments  that  are  definitely  expected.  Aims  may  be 
qualitative  without  being  quantitative  —  that  is,  they  may 
designate  direction  without  distance.  The  Pole  Star  is  often 
an  "orienting"  ideal  or  aim  for  mariners,  but  it  is  never 
a  goal.  Lighthouses  are  often  goals  or  stations,  partly  to 
steer  by,  but  partly  also  to  pass. 

The  objectives  of  civic  education,  like  those  of  many  other 
forms  of  education,  can  profitably  be  divided  into  two  classes 
or  orders  —  the  developmental  (beta)  and  the  projective 
(alpha).  The  results  in  adult  life  of  the  pursuit  of  develop- 
mental objectives  can  hardly  be  tested,  at  least  by  any 
methods  now  known.  But  the  results  of  the  pursuit  of  pro- 
jective objectives  ought  to  be  within  the  powers  of  socio- 
logical science  to  determine. 

The  derivation  of  objectives  of  civic  education  can  best 
be  made  on  the  same  basis  as  that  previously  suggested 
for  the  study  of  the  needs  of  such  education  —  the  "case 
group"  method.  Certainly  all  teachers  can  profitably  under- 
take the  study  of  objectives  for  specific  case  groups.  For 
example : 

Case  Group  MN.  In  certain  New  England  cities  large 
numbers  of  girls  (from  16  to  22)  and  smaller  numbers  of 
women  (unmarried  from  23  to  40)  are  employed  in  textile 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      41 

mills.  Most  of  these  are  "American  born  of  foreign  parents." 
We  can  assume  that  60  per  cent  of  them  have  more  than 
a  sixth-grade  and  less  than  a  tenth-grade  education;  15  per 
cent  have  tenth-grade  education  or  more,  and  25  per  cent 
(some  foreign  born)  less  than  a  sixth-grade  education. 

Most  of  these  workers  live  fairly  moral,  but  rather  dingy, 
home  lives.  They  are  good  church  members.  For  diversion 
they  depend  heavily  upon  the  photo-drama,  considerably 
upon  commercialized  dances,  much  upon  street  visiting, 
only  slightly  upon  home  associations,  and  hardly  at  all 
upon  cooperative  activities  of  an  amateur  character.  They 
read  freely  afternoon  newspapers,  and  40  per  cent  patron- 
ize freely  the  fiction  of  the  public  library.  Almost  none  read 
articles  or  books  on  civic  affairs. 

Some  are  members  of  unions,  but  take  little  interest 
except  in  times  of  crisis.  They  are  highly  specialized  in 
their  work,  earning  fairly  good  wages  but  having  little  to 
anticipate  of  economic  advancement.  Some  are  careful 
savers,  but  by  ordinary  standards  most  of  them  are  extrava- 
gant spenders. 

Their  political  interests  are  meager  and  essentially  con- 
ventional —  that  is,  they  leave  to  others  all  activities  pre- 
liminary to  voting,  and  in  voting  follow  behests  of  leaders 
heard  or  read  about.  They  know  very  little  indeed  about 
problems  of  contemporary  politics.  They  cherish  many 
ancient  prejudices. 

Their  extra-school  education  —  home,  church,  neighbor- 
hood, shop  —  has  made  them  fairly  good  citizens  as  regards 
observance  of  laws  and  socially  approved  conventions. 
Their  civic  initiative  is  practically  nil. 

The  rising  generation.  Growing  up  in  these  cities  are 
today  thousands  of  girls  who  will  follow  vocationally  in  the 
footsteps  of  their  elders  of  the  above  case  group.  On  the 
average,  their  parents  have  had  slightly  more  contact  with 


42  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

American  institutions  and  they  themselves  may  be  expected 
to  average  about  one  grade  more  of  schooling,  besides  140 
hours  of  continuation  schooling  between  ages  14  and  16. 

The  problem  is  set  us  of  providing  for  the  newer  generation 
more  effective  civic  education  than  that  had  by  the  elders. 
For  the  present  we  shall  consider  possibilities  in  connection 
with  all  those  who  attend  seventh  and  eighth  grades  but 
who  will  not  go  farther  (except  for  140  or  280  hours  part- 
time  school  attendance  the  possibilities  of  which  for  civic 
education  are  still  uncertain) . 

Assume  further  that  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
one  fourth  of  all  available  school  time  (or  a  total  of  720 
hours  within  and  without  the  school)  is  available  for  civic 
education,  to  include  all  that  is  given  of  history.  Assume 
that  in  the  first  six  grades  civic  education  remains  substan- 
tially as  at  present  —  developmental  readings,  projects,  and 
discipline,  with  about  100  hours  systematic  American  history 
and  100  hours  social  geography  in  Grades  5  and  6. 

By  such  sociological  analysis  we  can  bring  ourselves  to 
the  place  where  the  making  of  constructive  proposals  becomes 
profitable.  In  later  chapters  some  methods  for  such  work 
are  suggested. 

CIVIC  EDUCATION  AND  THE  TEACHER  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCE 

Questions  like  the  following  will  be  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance during  the  next  few  years  to  teachers  of  social  sciences : 

a.  Have  we  now  sociologically  valid  bases  for  proposals 
for  civic  education? 

b.  Does  sociology  itself  suggest  the  means  of  providing 
such  bases? 

c.  From  what  starting  points  shall  we  move  in  search 
for  them? 

The  following  answers  for  the  time  being  seem  valid: 

a.   All   contemporary  proposals  for  civic   education   are 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      43 

based  upon  faith  rather  than  upon  assured  knowledge. 
The  actual  (but  not  the  nominal)  foundations  for  the  teaching 
of  American  history  have  been  cultural  rather  than  civic. 
It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  such  subjects  as  civil  govern- 
ment, community  civics,  and  the  like  as  now  taught  are 
necessarily  functional  in  civic  values.  We  have  very  strong 
faith  that  scouting  and  good  boys'  club  work  are  so  func- 
tional, but  we  are  certainly  far  from  possessing  any  valid 
knowledge  to  that  effect,  taking  account  of  the  selective 
personalities  with  whom  these  systems,  based  upon  volunteer 
information  membership,  deal. 

b.  Sources  of  programs.  It  ought  to  be  entirely  prac- 
ticable to  obtain  sociologically  valid  bases  for  programs  of 
civic  education.  Some  methods  for  such  research  are  in- 
dicated elsewhere.  Let  it  be  repeated  that  the  most  effective 
single  method  certainly  is  to  proceed  from  an  analysis  of  the 
most  conspicuous  civic  defects  found  now  among  adults,  to 
elaboration  of  concrete  proposals  for  the  prevention  of  such 
defects  in  the  next  generation. 

c.  This  method  would  at  least  give  us  certain  criteria 
which  are  now  wanting.  For  example,  we  can  think  in 
terms  of  conformist  virtues  of  citizenship  and  especially 
those  limited  to  compliance  with  laws  regarding  property. 
Analysis  of  various  distinguishable  groups  of  citizens  will 
show  full  or  only  partial  compliance  with  such  laws,  and 
the  degree  to  which  it  is  found  will  vary  from  group  to 
group,  by  economic  levels,  or  otherwise. 

d.  From  this  starting  point,  then,  we  can  propose  par- 
ticular educational  procedures  designed  to  influence  the  next 
generation  of  citizens  in  these  particular  respects. 

e.  Similarly  it  should  prove  practicable  to  study  various 
groups  as  to  the  standards  and  kinds  of  group  participation 
which  their  individual  members  show  and  to  discover  their 
prevailing  interests  in  the  various  forms  of  approved  social 


44  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

behavior  entering  into  citizenship.  Needs  of  civic  education 
to  be  met  are  thus  revealed,  after  which  will  naturally 
follow  proposals  for  ways  and  means  for  meeting  these  needs. 
/.  Social  science  teachers,  as  well  as  school  authorities 
responsible  for  the  formulation  of  courses  for  civic  education, 
will  be  constantly  under  temptation  to  teach  the  formal 
"science"  of  the  subject,  forgetting  that  the  final  test  of 
the  efficacy  of  their  work  is  civic  behavior,  not  possession 
of  civic  knowledge.  The  rich  content  of  such  books  as 
Ashley's  The  New  Civics  is  very  comparable  to  the  rich 
content  of  some  modern  texts  in  geography,  American  his- 
tory, arithmetic,  or  physics.  But  all  the  statements  of  facts 
and  interpretations  thus  assembled  and  organized  may  or 
may  not  be  important  from  the  standpoint  of  a  program 
of  civic  education.  The  book,  like  a  good  cyclopedia,  will 
provide  an  abundance  of  reference  materials  for  topical 
work;  but  it  is  doubtful  if  it  should  be  studied  textually. 

THE   PROVINCE   OF   THE   SOCIAL   SCIENCE   TEACHER 

Teachers  of  the  social  sciences  are  not  now  professionally 
trained  even  to  the  extent  that  high  school  teachers  of 
foreign  languages,  English  language,  chemistry,  mathematics, 
and  home  economics  can  be  called  professionally  trained. 
In  many  cases  teachers  of  the  history  studies  are  being  given 
that  work. 

In  the  meantime  astonishing  numbers  of  students  are 
studying  the  social  sciences  in  colleges.  Very  probably  from 
these  will  be  drawn  the  social  science  teachers  of  the  early 
future.  They  will  be  well  informed  in  economics  and  sociol- 
ogy, but  at  first,  as  has  been  the  case  with  college  graduates 
who  have  majored  in  natural  science  or  English  literature, 
they  may  be  expected  to  teach  over  the  heads  of  their  learn- 
ers. Nevertheless,  from  these  sources  only  will  at  first  come 
teachers  of  civic  education. 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      45 

What  will  prove  desirable  limits  to  their  activities?  Shall 
they  also  teach  the  various  branches  of  history?  Shall  they 
be  expected  to  direct  those  highly  educative  social  activities, 
such  as  civic  service  projects,  self-government  projects, 
neighborhood  visitation,  etc.,  which  properly  should  sup- 
plement, if  not  precede,  formal  instruction? 

Departmental  organization.  The  problem  obviously  pre- 
sents as  many  difficulties  as  that  of  physical  education. 
Clearly  the  entire  field  of  civic  education  —  its  develop- 
mental and  behavioristic  aspects  as  well  as  its  instructional 
and  training  aspects  —  should  in  any  school  system  be  co- 
ordinated under  one  specialist,  at  least  so  far  as  the  needs 
of  children  from  12  to  18  years  of  age  are  concerned.  There 
are,  nevertheless,  great  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in 
trying  to  combine  under  one  person  responsibilities  for  sys- 
tematic instruction  in  history  and  economics  as  well  as 
supervision  of  the  socializing  aspects  of  school  discipline. 

The  eventual  solution  in  large  schools,  it  is  probable,  will 
be  found  here,  as  in  the  case  of  physical  education,  through 
the  coordinating  authority  and  knowledge  of  a  responsible 
supervisor  for  the  entire  field  of  civic  education,  in  junior 
and  senior  high  schools  and  perhaps  vocational  and  part- 
time  schools,  operating  through  specialists  teaching  one  or 
more  of  the  subjects  or  guiding  the  socializing  activities 
denoted  by  such  terms  as  service  projects,  social  science 
readings,  salient  American  history,  community  civics,  eco- 
nomics, study  of  peoples,  political  problems,  and  the  rest. 


CHAPTER  THREE 

Suggestions  to  Teachers:  Miscellaneous 

TO   RURAL   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL   TEACHERS 

Let  us  assume  the  case  of  a  young  woman,  teaching  her 
first  year  in  a  rural  one-room  elementary  school  having 
twenty-five  pupils,  the  first  seven  grades  being  represented. 
She  graduated  from  an  ordinary  type  of  high  school,  and 
she  has  had  two  years  of  normal  school  training.  As  she 
looks  back,  her  general  and  professional  education  seem  to 
have  been  rather  congested.  She  seems  not  to  have  received 
much  of  the  specific  appreciations  and  powers  apparently 
needed  to  meet  her  present  needs  in  giving  civic  education. 
In  diagnosis  of  her  problems,  and  for  advisory  purposes, 
the  following  considerations  are  addressed  to  her : 

The  teacher's  work.  "As  a  conscientious  teacher  you  are 
still  seriously  disconcerted  by  conflicting  ideas  as  to  what 
your  work  actually  is  or  should  be.  Memories  of  your  own 
elementary  school  life  revolve  around  lessons  in  arithmetic, 
spelling,  geography,  and  American  history,  with  incidental 
hygiene,  nature  study,  music,  and  cardboard  work.  You 
recall  much  rather  futile  drill  in  oral  reading  and  composition 
writing.  Your  high  school  studies  were  even  more  stereo- 
typed, but  from  them  you  derived  quite  extraneous  satis- 
factions, because  you  had  a  good  mind  and  could  easily 
outdistance  your  competitors.  Your  two  years  of  normal 
school  work  have  resulted  in  confused  recollections  of  very 
lively  and  pleasant  social  experiences,  demands  for  class- 
room results  that  you  could  never  more  than  partially  meet, 
and  an  intellectual  swallowing  of  vastly  more  materials  than 
you  felt  you  could  properly  assimilate.  You  still  have  an 
uneasy  feeling  that,  whilst  you  have  been  trained  in  some 
few  noteworthy  respects,  and  instructed  somewhat  super- 

46 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  47 

ficially,  perhaps,  in  endless  reaches  of  knowledge  and  ideals, 
you  are  still  very  imperfectly  educated  —  which,  of  course, 
if  you  knew  it,  raises  an  old  question  that  even  the  philoso- 
phers can  only  answer  by  expressions  of  opinion  couched  in 
vague  and  by  no  means  unequivocal  terms. 

"But  from  many  sources  you  have  acquired  convictions, 
still  held  largely  as  mixtures  of  beliefs  and  aspirations,  that 
somehow  the  'new'  education  for  which  you,  among  others, 
are  to  be  in  part  responsible,  must  be  vastly  better  than, 
and  different  from,  the  'old.'  The  war,  we  have  been  often 
told,  clearly  demonstrated  our  national  needs  of  civic  educa- 
tion and  of  better  physical  education.  It  did  not  need  the 
war  to  prove  to  many  of  us  that  our  rural  schools  were 
falling  far  short  of  meeting  the  needs  of  our  time. 

Modern  theories.  "Back  of  all  this,  however,  it  has  been 
incessantly  borne  in  upon  you  that  in  the  past  our  schools 
have  taught  *  subjects'  too  much  and  children  too  little; 
and  that  the  teacher  was  too  often  the  slave  of  the  textbook 
instead  of  its  competent  master.  Throughout  your  period 
of  professional  training  you  responded  with  much  sympa- 
thetic interest,  although  often  with  cloudy  understanding, 
to  the  pedagogic  ideals  of  utilizing  'activities'  in  teaching, 
of  adapting  your  instruction  to  the  'life'  or  life's  interests 
of  the  pupils,  and  of  using  'projects'  as  valuable  means  of 
self-expression,  and  the  like. 

"Now,  in  possession  of  your  own  school  at  last,  you  are 
mystified.  The  rather  uninspiring  county  'course  of  study' 
inherited  by  you,  with  registers  and  other  paraphernalia, 
from  previous  teachers,  still  seems  to  lean  heavily  on  the 
teaching  of  spelling,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  the  like. 
It  says  little  about  physical  education  beyond  some  prescribed 
lessons  in  hygiene,  and  makes  no  mention  of  civics  until 
the  seventh  grade.  You  learn  that  there  has  been  complaint 
of  former  teachers  on  account  of  their  failures  sufficiently 


48  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

to  advance  or  perfect  their  pupils  in  arithmetic,  handwriting, 
and  spelling.  There  remain  grievances  also  with  regard  to 
discipline.  Some  of  the  pupils  were  allowed  to  be  disorderly 
and  abusive. 

"The  situation  confronting  you  is  very  like  that  faced  by 
tens  of  thousands  of  young  teachers  each  year  for  at  least  the 
last  quarter  of  a  century.  Of  these  tens  of  thousands  many  — 
a  majority,  it  is  to  be  feared  —  soon  allowed  themselves  to 
be  bound  tight  to  the  wheel  of  the  day's  needs  —  the  tradi- 
tional school  routine.  They  gave  most  of  the  energy  that 
they  had  left  after  keeping  their  restless  pupils  in  moderate 
and  always  precarious  order,  to  the  formal  teaching  of  the 
formal  subjects.  They  concluded  that  these  were  after  all 
the  staples,  compared  with  which  all  the  other  things  hinted 
at  in  normal  school  lectures  are  luxuries.  For  schoolroom 
procedure  and  methods  of  teaching  they  found  themselves 
hark'ng  back  to  their  own  childhood  experiences  more  fre- 
quently even  than  to  their  normal  school  training  classes. 

"Like  manual  workers  whose  daily  drudgery  leaves  them 
neither  time  nor  energy  to  think,  these  teachers  gradually 
lose  hold  on  their  aspirations  and  come  to  believe  the  pro- 
posals of  the  'new*  education  impracticable  under  present 
working  conditions.  They  fall  back  upon  the  substantial  and 
comforting  guidance  of  textbook  study  and  daily  drill. 
They  are  momentarily  thrilled  anew  by  educational  idealism 
at  institutes  and  association  meetings  but  they  fail  of  the 
necessary  resolution  and  inventiveness  to  carry  their  re- 
kindled ideals  into  practice. 

Gifted  teachers.  "At  the  opposite  pole  are  the  half-dozen 
gifted  and  inventive  spirits  that  any  ten  thousand  of  human 
beings  will  produce.  These  teachers  are  unquestionably 
greatly  favored  by  some  kind  of  extraordinary  inheritance  — 
frequently  a  bundle  of  splendid  qualities  born  into  the  very 
fiber  of  their  being.    They  have  exceptional  courage,  often 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  49 

exceptional  energy.  They  are  full  of  social  sympathies  and 
are  good  mixers.  Above  all  they  have  'enterprise.'  Some- 
times, in  an  excess  of  zeal,  they  are  mercurial,  running 
always  after  new  ideals,  and  not  very  stable  in  discharging 
accepted  responsibilities.  But  at  their  best  they  find  ways 
of  doing  well  the  day's  work,  and  also  of  keeping  their 
aspirations  fresh,  whilst  throwing  themselves  into  new  and 
promising  enterprises  for  the  good  of  the  school  or  the  com- 
munity. 

"Perhaps  we  shall  have  to  confess,  sadly,  that  people  of 
the  latter  type  are  'born'  —  and  born  but  seldom.  Like 
the  great  explorers,  they  may  discover  lands  that  others  of 
more  common  clay  can  inhabit,  and  they  break  the  paths 
which  the  average  of  humanity  can  readily  tread.  But 
occupying  their  lands  and  following  their  paths  do  not  endow 
the  rest  of  us  with  their  energy,  inventiveness,  social  leader- 
ship, or  love  of  enterprise  —  institute  lecturers  to  the  con- 
trary notwithstanding. 

Average  teachers.  "  Between  these  two  extreme  groups  are 
many  young  teachers  who  are  every  year  contributing  much 
that  is  good  to  American  education.  They  soon  learn  to 
distinguish  between  'Pole  Star'  ideals  —  by  which  men  may 
steer,  but  which  they  can  never  hope  to  reach  —  and  '  light- 
house' ideals,  which  are  guiding  lights  that  may  be  ap- 
proached, passed,  and  left  behind  as  new  goals  come  into 
view.  These  are  the  teachers  who  know  that  in  their  imma- 
turity and  inexperience  they  can  neither  hope  at  once  to 
'lead'  (or,  horrid  words,  'reform'  or  'uplift')  their  com- 
munities, nor  to  initiate  sweeping  changes  in  curricula  and 
school  courses  that  have  been  in  process  of  slow  evolution 
for  decades,  if  not  centuries.  They  do  not  hope  to  see  the 
fundamental  aims  of  the  schools  changed  overnight,  nor 
the  methods  of  instruction  and  training  revolutionized 
readily.    Nevertheless  they  are  convinced  that  progress  is 


50  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

taking  place  and  will  take  place  in  education  as  in  other 
fields  of  human  effort,  perhaps  through  rather  blind  trial- 
and-success  methods  for  the  present. 

"These  teachers  therefore  accept  with  patience  the  routine 
of  each  day's  work,  whilst  keeping  fresh  their  aspirations  and 
ideals.  They  are  eager  to  try  the  new  that  comes  to  them 
on  approved  authority,  and  especially  desirous  of  holding 
fast  to  that  which  is  good.  They  are  not  afraid  to  be  ex- 
ploratory, even  radical,  in  their  private  thinking,  but  they 
are  sanely  conservative  in  action,  as  befits  workers  who  are 
yet  only  slightly  beyond  apprenticeship  stages. 

"What  can  the  rural  teacher  of  the  type  last  suggested 
do  in  the  field  of  civic  education?  She  cannot  hope  to  de- 
velop the  powers  of  the  departmental  specialist.  Most  of  her 
energies  must  be  given  to  the  younger  children.  Here  are 
some  suggestions: 

1.  The  historic  subjects.  "  She  can  see  clearly  what  a  large 
part  the  older  school  subjects  play  in  education  for  citizen- 
ship. The  forefathers  were  right  in  thinking  of  literacy  as 
the  very  foundation  of  civic  education.  They  were  also 
right  in  believing  that  moderate  amounts  of  arithmetic, 
English  composition,  American  history,  and  geography  give 
the  ideals  of  vocational  and  cultura'  life  to  an  extent  that 
produces  the  civic  confidence  and  intellectual  tools  necessary 
for  further  study.  The  rural  teacher  should  do  as  much 
as  lies  in  her  power  to  see  that  in  these  subjects  attention 
is  focused  chiefly  on  essentials  and  that  these  are  well  taught. 

2.  "The  rural  teacher  can  school  herself  in  the  practical 
realization  that  the  group  of  pupils  whom  she  daily  meets 
is  itself,  like  the  family,  an  elementary  social  group,  good 
membership  in  which  is  itself  one  contribution  toward  good 
citizenship.  Younger  rural  teachers  probably  can  do  little 
to  develop  and  promote  school  self-government  —  for  it 
usually  takes  very  strong  and  experienced  leaders  to  insure 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  51 

safe  self-government;  but  it  may  well  be  within  the  powers 
of  enthusiastic  beginners  to  promote  some  degrees  of  co- 
operative participation  in  government  on  the  part  of  her 
most  influential  pupils. 

3.  "In  all  grades,  and  with  comparatively  little  expendi- 
ture of  teaching  energy,  the  rural  teacher  can  keep  alive, 
and  often  very  considerably  develop,  some  of  the  various 
sentiments,  aspirations,  and  ideals  that  enter  more  or  less 
into  good  adult  citizenship.  These  include  especially:  appre- 
ciations and  admirations  of  the  founders  of  our  common- 
wealths in  their  various  evolutionary  stages  from  colonial 
or  frontier  settlements  to  modern  sovereign  states;  interests 
in  the  historic  events  that  have  marked  salient  points  in 
our  social  evolution;  and  a  moderate  amount  of  knowledge 
of  the  trials  and  difficulties  that  have  been  overcome  in 
developing  democracy,  republican  institutions,  and  our 
prominent  national  position  in  the  world  of  affairs  today. 
The  pursuit  of  these  objectives  need  not  severely  tax  the 
teacher,  since  to  a  large  extent  they  can  be  achieved  by 
keeping  at  the  disposal  of  the  learners  some  of  the  stories, 
biographies,  and  other  readings  that  should  be  found  in  any 
rural  school  library;  and  in  supplementing  these  with  occa- 
sional talks,  commemoration  day  celebrations,  and  the  like. 

4.  "In  the  upper  grades  American  history  will  be  taught 
in  a  systematic  way.  Here  the  teacher  can  use  all  the  influ- 
ence she  possesses  over  the  prescribed  course  of  study  to 
eliminate  all  the  dry  and  needless  details  of  history  and  in 
singling  out  for  full  discussion  and  idealization  those  phases 
of  our  history  that  are  chiefly  significant  to  citizens  of  today 
and  tomorrow.  Within  limits  the  same  procedure  is  pos- 
sible in  the  teaching  of  geography  and  even  literature. 

5.  "The  rural-school  teacher  can  well  afford,  in  the  in- 
terest of  civic  education,  to  give  special  attention  to  the 
keenest  minds  among  her  pupils.     A  large  proportion  of 


52  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

the  political  and  other  leaders  of  this  country  spend  their 
early  years  in  rural  schools  and  are  probably  to  an  important 
degree  shaped  for  subsequent  leadership  by  the  environment 
and  independent  activities  that  country  life  affords.  Every 
rural  school  teacher  has  opportunities  to  inspire  these  poten- 
tial leaders  with  ideals  that  may  become  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  orienting  their  subsequent  lives. 

6.  "On  the  negative  side  she  should  not  feel  obliged  to 
put  herself  into  competition  with  specialized  or  depart- 
mental teachers  in  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools  of 
villages  or  cities.  Her  responsibilities  are  primarily  to  the 
younger  children,  in  any  event.  The  multiplicity  of  her 
tasks  renders  it  impossible  that  she  should  successfully  com- 
pete with  departmental  specialists.  Hence  the  importance  of 
selecting  from  the  entire  field  of  civic  education  a  few  essen- 
tials (and  this  applies  equally  to  physical  education)  and 
in  doing  these  fairly  well  in  the  time  left  after  meeting 
her  primary  obligations  in  the  regular  school  subjects  and 
in  maintaining  good  school  order. 

7.  Community  leadership.  "This  is  not  the  place  to 
suggest  in  detail  the  part  that  should  be  played  by  the 
teacher  herself  as  a  citizen,  independent  of  her  functions  as 
teacher.  The  tendency  of  our  recent  educational  literature 
has  been  hopelessly  Utopian  in  its  ambitions  on  behalf  of 
rural  school  teachers.  It  is  repeatedly  suggested  that  these 
teachers,  in  spite  of  their  immaturity  and  inexperience, 
should  play  a  leading,  not  to  say  directing,  role  in  rural 
community  affairs.  Clearly  the  utterances  of  Utopian 
writers  here  reflect  aspirations  rather  than  practicable  pro- 
posals. As  a  rule  young  doctors,  lawyers,  engineers,  military 
officers,  and  the  rest  do  not  play  prominent  parts,  certainly 
not  directive  roles,  during  their  years  of  professional  appren- 
ticeship. They  are  expected,  first  of  all,  to  do  well  specific 
work  assigned  them;  next  to  fit  conformably  and  without 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  53 

too  much  conceit  into  the  social  order  about  them;  to  take 
minor  roles  of  volunteer  service  willingly;  and  finally  to 
keep  their  minds  open  in  order  to  have  the  fullest  possible 
experience  and  balanced  judgment  when  ripened  maturity 
eventually  brings  them  responsibilities  of  leadership  on  their 
own  behalf.  American  women  graduating  from  normal 
school  or  college  have  yet  much  to  learn  with  respect  to 
participation  in  urban  or  rural  community  life  in  the  United 
States.  The  spectacle  of  their  attempting,  at  the  outset  of 
their  work,  to  take  prominent  part  in  affairs  lying  outside 
their  strictly  professional  field  would  often  be  ludicrous 
were  it  not  rendered  pathetic  by  the  oft-repeated  exhorta- 
tions of  well-meaning,  but  not  very  practical,  educational 
leaders  that  they  thus  atone  for  the  deficiency  of  the  other 
agencies  among  which  they  must  work.  Sinclair  Lewis  in 
his  novel  Main  Street  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  *  uplifting' 
type  of  young  college  woman  who,  in  a  rural  town,  lets  her 
aspiring  zeal  run  far  ahead  of  her  practical  experience  or 
social  wisdom.  Education  has  its  Carol  Kennicotts  as  well 
as  village  reform.  Let  the  young  teacher  move  slowly  until 
she  can  move  securely. 

8.  "The  young  teacher  must  not  forget  that  other  agen- 
cies besides  the  school  are  continually  at  work,  perhaps 
more  in  rural  communities  than  elsewhere,  toward  the 
making  of  fairly  good,  even  though  not  ideal,  citizens  out 
of  our  boys  and  girls.  The  men  who  developed  out  of  Indian- 
possessed  forests  the  commonwealths  of  the  North  Missis- 
sippi Valley  probably  averaged  less  than  250  days  of  school- 
ing per  man.  'By  their  works  shall  they  be  known.'  Our 
forefathers  who  gave  us  this  nation  were  not  bad  citizens. 
Most  of  their  sons,  grandsons,  or  great-grandsons  in  our 
schools  today  would  not  make  bad  citizens,  even  if  schools 
kept  only  three  months  in  the  year.  But  we  hope  to  give 
them  better  schools  than  their  fathers  had,  and  to  expect 


54  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

even  better  results  than  their  fathers  produced.    That  is 
not  an  impossible,  not  even  a  very  difficult,  task." 

TO   TEACHERS   IN   SMALL   HIGH    SCHOOLS 

Out  of  13,951  high  schools  reporting  to  the  Commissioner 
of  Education  in  the  United  States  in  1918,  7042  had  not 
to  exceed  50  pupils.  Seventy-five  per  cent  of  all  high  schools, 
representing  an  enrollment  of  nearly  700,000  pupils,  out  of 
a  total  of  1,735,000  found  in  all  the  public  high  schools 
of  the  United  States,  had  each  100  or  fewer  pupils. 

Such  high  schools  receive  almost  all  the  rural  and  village 
youths  who  care  for  secondary  education.  Little  scientific- 
study  seems  to  have  gone  to  the  making  of  curricula  for 
these  smaller  schools.  Only  two  clearly  defined  "large" 
objectives  seem  to  be  held  in  view,  (a)  Because  a  few  of 
their  ablest  and  best-environed  pupils  will  each  year  go  to 
college  or  normal  school,  the  "college  preparatory"  subjects 
are  essentially  well  taught,  as  a  rule,  (b)  In  many  of  these 
schools  a  "commercial"  department  is  found  which  appeals 
to  not  a  few  students  because  the  studies  are  probably  less 
difficult  than  those  of  the  college  preparatory  curriculum, 
and  desirable  vocational  goals  are  temptingly  held  forth. 
A  few  small  "high  schools  of  agriculture"  are  now  found, 
but  as  a  rule  their  "vocational  coating"  or  flavor  is  just 
sufficient  to  serve  the  purpose  of  "holding  pupils  in  school." 

Small  high  schools  have  not  yet  defined  schemes  of  ob- 
jectives that  should  constitute  a  curriculum  of  genuinely 
"liberal  education"  for  that  majority  of  their  pupils  who 
will  neither  go  to  college  nor  take  up  stenography  as  a 
vocation.  (The  commercial  curricula  are  usually  illusory  as 
vocational  preparation  for  any  vocation  except  stenog- 
raphy.) Great  difficulties  will  obviously  be  encountered  in 
doing  this  so  long  as  the  requirements  of  the  two  curricula 
just  mentioned  are  standardized  as  at  present.    The  time 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  55 

and  energy  of  the  small  faculty  will  necessarily  be  wholly 
employed  in  meeting  traditional  objectives. 

Nevertheless,  changes  will  eventually  take  place.  Every- 
where there  is  now  very  keen  interest  in  three  groups  of 
studies  for  these  schools  —  English  literature,  general  sci- 
ence, and  civics  or  the  "social  sciences"  —  that  point 
toward  truer  realizations  of  cultural  and  civic  (or,  together, 
liberal)  education  than  have  heretofore  prevailed.  Around 
these  three  centers  enterprising  teachers  with  clear  ideals  of 
what  a  functioning  liberal  education  is,  can  build  long  or 
short  courses  —  in  some  cases  of  "alpha"  or  "projective" 
type,  in  others  of  the  "beta"  or  "developmental"  type  — 
that  should  prove  especially  significant  to  those  youths  who 
can  spend  only  from  one  to  three  years  in  high  school. 

History  teachers.  These  paragraphs  are  addressed  pri- 
marily to  that  teacher  whose  program  includes  the  usual 
offerings  in  history,  with  perhaps  the  beginnings  of  civics 
or  economics.  He  will  naturally  be  interested  in  the  objec- 
tives of  civic  education  and  in  various  possible  answers  to 
the  questions,  "What  can  be  done  for  the  small  community?  " 
and  especially  "What  can  be  done  in  the  small  high  school?" 
It  is  obviously  unsatisfactory  to  make  the  small  high  school, 
either  as  a  whole,  or  in  particular  parts,  a  small  and  weak 
imitation  of  the  large  urban  high  school.  Teachers  in  highly 
departmentalized  large  high  schools  can  readily  undertake 
enterprises  that  must  be  quite  beyond  the  powers  of  the 
teacher  in  a  small  school  to  whom  is  assigned  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  hours  of  instruction  per  week  in  from  three 
to  five  subjects. 

Suggestions  for  civic  education.  The  following  are  sub- 
mitted as  suggestions  looking  to  the  most  feasible  and 
profitable  lines  of  effort  for  that  teacher  in  every  small 
high  school  most  interested  in  civic  education: 

a.   He  can  study  the  objectives  of  civic  education  in  terms 


56  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

of  the  adult  citizenship  now  found  in  the  region  of  the  school. 
Most  of  the  adults  there  from  30  to  70  years  of  age  are 
now  moderately  good  citizens.  A  few  are  not.  Of  those 
who  have  had  at  least  the  equivalent  of  a  full  elementary 
education  probably  very  few  are  "undesirable  citizens"  in 
any  ordinary  meaning  of  that  term.  Probably  the  majority 
of  the  obviously  "bad"  citizens  were  either  indisposed  or 
unable  to  profit  by  any  considerable  amount  of  schooling. 

As  indicated  in  detail  elsewhere  in  this  book,  the  first 
business  of  the  educator  interested  in  civic  objectives  is  to 
forecast  the  probable  citizenship  of  the  children  of  today  in 
terms  of  resemblance  to,  and  differences  from,  that  of  the 
adults  of  today.  This  is  the  sociological  method  —  the 
only  scientific  method  of  ascertaining  valid  objectives  for 
education  through  schools  or  by  other  agencies.  The  total 
available  means  of  civic  education  in  the  future  will  un- 
questionably be  a  highly  differentiated  composite  of  long 
and  short  courses  —  and  from  these  each  school  will  select, 
first  those  elements  which  local  conditions  suggest  as  most 
urgent,  and  second  those  courses  which  the  school  can  best 
handle. 

b.  Much  the  most  available  means  of  civic  education 
for  the  small  high  school  will  be  found  in  so-called  develop- 
mental readings,  ranging  from  biographies  and  local  history 
to  well-written  analyses  of  current  economic  problems.  A 
stimulating  teacher,  holding  at  least  weekly  conferences  of 
readers,  and  having  at  hand  a  considerable  range  of  materi- 
als, ought  to  experience  no  great  difficulty  in  keeping  a 
very  considerable  group  of  active  first  or  second  year  pupils 
keenly  interested  in  these  readings  and  the  attendant  dis- 
cussions and  debates. 

c.  The  third  opportunity  lies  in  the  gradual  recasting  of 
history  studies  so  as  to  reduce  to  the  minimum  "salient" 
or  strictly  formal  history  and  to  enlarge  the  scope  of  "prob- 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  57 

lem  history.'*  This  will  not  prove  easy  until  a  new  order 
of  textbooks  shall  have  been  written.  These,  starting  with 
topics  of  current  social  interest,  will  present  various  problems 
on  which  the  light  of  history  can  be  shed  to  the  advantage 
of  civic  insights,  appreciations,  and  ideals. 

TO    TEACHERS    IN    SEVENTH    AND    EIGHTH    GRADES    IN 
URBAN   SCHOOLS 

A  very  large  proportion  of  American  children  between  12 
and  14  years  of  age  in  villages  and  cities  are  still  taught 
under  "graded  school"  conditions;  that  is,  one  teacher  is 
responsible  for  all  subjects  except  manual  training  and 
household  arts.  In  a  few  graded  schools  departmental 
teaching  is  found;  and  wherever  the  junior  high  school 
plan  has  been  more  than  nominally  carried  out,  departmental 
teaching  certainly  prevails.  Very  few  schools  abroad  carry 
undepartmentalized  teaching  to  the  extent  that  America 
has  always  done  with  children  over  12  years  of  age.  The 
prevailing  system  here  is,  of  course,  largely  a  survival  of 
rural  school  conditions. 

In  the  typical  seventh  grade  and  only  to  a  somewhat 
lesser  extent  in  eighth  grades  will  be  found  many  pupils 
whose  full-time  school  attendance  will  close  at  14  or  15 
years  of  age.  The  abler  pupils,  and  particularly  those  of 
favoring  environment,  will  go  for  two  or  more  years  to 
high  school.  Their  civic  future  is,  in  a  sense,  much  more 
assured  than  is  that  of  the  less  capable  and  less  favorably 
circumstanced  pupils  who  early  drop  out  of  school. 

Hence  teachers  in  ordinary  communities  (except  select 
residential  suburbs)  can  well  afford  to  present  their  work 
in  civics  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  on  the  assumption 
that  none  of  their  pupils  will  enter  high  school.  They  should 
most  study  the  possibilities  of  those  slower  boys  and  girls 
who  are  likely  to  become  the  rank  and  file  of  voters,  to 


58  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

compose  the  modal  groups  in  society  in  point  of  earnings, 
civic  interests,  standards  of  living,  and  cultural  attainments. 

Undepartmentalized  teaching  limits  seriously  the  powers 
of  the  individual  teacher  to  master  the  content  and  teaching 
methods  in  particular  fields  or  departments.  Very  few  men 
or  women  have  the  abilities  to  become  good  teachers  in 
such  varied  subjects  as  English  language,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, American  history,  English  literature,  civics,  music, 
drawing,  hygiene,  and  general  science  in  accordance  with 
the  standards  usually  appropriate  to  pupils  12  to  14  or  15 
years  of  age.  Under  these  conditions  a  given  subject  must 
be  adapted  no  less  to  the  capacities  of  teachers  than  to 
the  needs  of  learners.  What  is  the  scope  and  character  of 
possible  civic  education  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades  under 
conditions  of  undepartmentalized  teaching? 

The  suggestions  made  to  rural  elementary  school  teachers 
in  another  section  all  apply  as  well  to  the  upper-grade 
teachers  here  considered.  Certainly  their  richest  opportuni- 
ties for  group  civic  education  lie  in  the  promotion  of  stimu- 
lating "readings"  calculated  to  give  civic  appreciations, 
ideals,  and  insights.  Opportunities  for  valuable  work  in  "  ser- 
vice projects"  or  other  projects  external  to  the  schools  may 
not  be  many,  but  the  performance  of  even  a  few  genuinely 
civic  projects  —  dramatic  or  service  —  may  be  important. 

Graded  schools.  The  peculiar  advantage  of  the  graded 
school  over  the  rural  school  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
teacher's  work  is  found,  of  course,  in  the  relative  homo- 
geneity of  groups  of  pupils.  But  the  peculiar  temptation 
of  this  situation  is  excessively  to  organize  and  formalize 
all  subjects  of  instruction.  The  evils  of  this  are  plainly 
apparent  in  the  teaching  of  the  only  two  important  subjects 
of  civic  education  now  usually  found  in  upper  grades, 
American  history  and  didactic  civics  or  civil  government. 

As  now  organized  in  textbooks  these  subjects  are  badly 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  59 

congested.  The  language  of  presentation  is  very  abstract. 
Undue  systematization  or  logical  organization  of  content 
gives  to  each  subject  a  rigidity  of  form  and  angularity 
of  outline  not  unlike  that  of  the  human  skeleton.  Good 
intentions  of  textbook  makers  to  the  contrary  notwithstand- 
ing, their  products  inevitably  show  the  characteristics  of 
compendiums,  reference  works,  or  digests.  No  important 
fact  is  omitted.  Concrete  descriptions  or  amplified  treat- 
ment, such  as  might  lend  attractiveness  of  style  or  artistry 
of  content,  are  usually  not  permitted.  The  book  must  omit 
nothing,  yet  it  must  all  be  compressed  within  the  customary 
few  hundred  pages. 

All  good  departmental  teachers,  of  course,  use  texts  merely 
as  adjuncts  or  even  as  reference  books  and  guides.  But  only 
one  grade  teacher  in  a  hundred  can  find  the  time  or  resources 
for  such  a  procedure.  These  teachers  must  lean  heavily  on 
the  text,  often  leaving  it  as  almost  the  sole  source  of  in- 
spiration and  guidance  to  the  learner.  Under  these  condi- 
tions it  is  little  wonder  that  neither  history  nor  civics  proves, 
usually,  an  interesting  or  informing  subject  of  study  for 
any  but  pupils  of  extraordinary  powers  of  imagination  —  the 
rare  kind  that  can  make  waters  of  learning  gush  even  from 
rocks  of  dry  verbal  statements. 

Available  resources.  However,  until  we  can  get  aids  to 
learning  built  along  lines  very  different  from  those  of  ordinary 
textbooks,  teachers  must  use  such  resources  as  are  available. 
But  they  can  often  exercise  discretion  in  their  use.  Here 
lie  some  available  opportunities  for  grade  teachers  in  civic 
education.  If  they  can  come  to  see  what  are  the  things 
that  count  most,  they  can  often  shape  textbook  treatment 
to  the  ends  thus  conceived.  They  have  already  learned  to 
do  so  in  good  language  and  arithmetic  teaching.  American 
history  offers  rich  opportunities  for  further  efforts  of  this 
kind. 


60  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

The  authorities  are  not  yet  certain  whether  all  the  ob- 
jectives of  American  history  should  lie  in  the  field  of  civic 
education.  But  teachers  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades  are 
justified  in  assuming  that  the  major  functions  of  this  study 
should  be  the  establishment  of  certain  kinds  of  civic  ideals, 
civic  attitudes,  and  civic  insights.  Toward  these  ends  a 
large  part  of  the  minute  data  or  information  found  in  the 
typical  textbook  is  probably  quite  irrelevant.  Often,  how- 
ever, the  personal  characteristics  of  heroic  figures,  real  or 
fictitious,  as  given  in  tale,  anecdote,  or  poem  may  be  very 
significant.  By  shifting  emphasis  from  minutiae  dear  to 
the  historian's  heart,  to  massive  considerations  comprehensi- 
ble by  average  learners,  the  teacher  can  probably  do  much 
to  make  American  history  a  live  subject  not  only  culturally 
but,  more  important,  in  producing  civic  appreciations  and 
attitudes  of  much  significance  and  functioning  worth  in  later 
civic  behavior.  Materials  found  in  books  other  than  texts 
may  sometimes  prove  more  valuable  for  this  purpose  than 
the  texts  themselves. 

American  history.  Another  kind  of  shifting  of  emphasis 
is  possible  even  within  areas  of  the  "big"  facts  of  American 
history  —  that  is,  toward  the  things  that  have  a  vital  signifi- 
cance to  the  problems  of  citizenship  today  and  in  the  near 
future.  For  example,  the  numberless  contests  of  our  ances- 
tors with  Indians  furnish  indeed  picturesque  materials  for 
study,  but  such  studies  are  probably  quite  without  civic 
significance  to  present  and  to  future  generations  of  citizens. 
Leave  them  to  the  cultural  education  of  the  lower  grades. 

Even  slavery,  long  the  most  tremendous  and  portentous 
source  of  problems  for  American  voters  and  statesmen,  is 
now  a  dead  and  buried  issue.  The  strenuous  struggles  it 
occasioned  make  important  chapters  in  cultural  history,  but 
have  little  relevancy  for  the  history  that  is  to  help  in  the 
making  of  citizens  capable  of  facing  the  new  problems  of 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  61 

our  generation.  The  effective  cooperation  of  whites  and 
blacks  in  the  United  States  gives  us  now,  it  is  true,  some 
difficult  civic  problems;  but  only  the  briefest  review  of  the 
origins  of  the  black  race  in  this  country  is  necessary  to 
give  the  setting  of  these  problems. 

Similar  considerations  apply  to  our  conflicts  with  Great 
Britain.  The  issues  over  which  these  conflicts  were  waged 
are  now  dead.  There  are  no  new  ones  in  sight.  The  real 
civic  problems  of  America  in  connection  with  the  British 
Empire  are  those  of  fullest  practicable  cooperation.  Many 
things  in  the  history  of  the  last  hundred  years  give  potent 
interpretations  to  right  ideals,  appreciations,  and  under- 
standings here. 

Elsewhere  in  this  book  are  given  various  suggestions  as 
to  possible  reorganizations  of  the  materials  of  history  as 
means  of  civic  education.  These  reorganizations  will  in  all 
probability  eventually  be  shaped  into  suitable  texts.  But 
in  the  meantime  grade  teachers  must  work  with  existing 
"chronological"  and  compendious  texts  —  compendious  in 
quantity  of  specific  data,  if  not  in  pages.  Can  these  teachers 
construct  for  themselves  certain  large  objectives  out  of 
the  plain  civic  needs  of  our  time,  and  then  use  the 
materials  of  history,  largely  to  shed  light  and  inspiration  on 
these? 

Live  problems.  Few  will  dispute  that  among  the  most 
important  groups  of  problems  confronting  the  next  genera- 
tion are  the  following :  the  proper  regulation  and  assimilation 
of  immigration;  territorial  specialization  of  production;  the 
relative  decline  of  rural  peoples;  military  preparedness; 
the  destructive  exploitation  of  raw  resources;  and  many 
others  of  similar  quality.  Now  topics  bearing  intimately 
on  each  of  these  sets  of  problems  recur  constantly  in  our 
history  studies.  It  is  easy  to  single  them  out  for  special 
attention.     Teachers  are  not  required  to  be  partisans   of 


62  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

particular  doctrines  in  order  to  do  this  —  in  fact,  for  pur- 
poses here  under  consideration  it  is  better  that  they  be 
non-partisan  and  scientific,  but  much  interested  in  directing 
the  thoughts  of  their  pupils  toward  all  aspects  of  the  ques- 
tions involved.  In  the  tangled  regions  of  these  problems  no 
simple  formulae  will  save  us;  wisdom  comes  only  from  gen- 
erous knowledge  and  appreciation  and  a  wide  range  of 
understanding,  even  if  only  partially  developed. 

Coupled  with  this  is  the  other  conception  that  we  can  use 
the  cumulative  impressions  of  history  study  to  deepen  and 
expand  these  things:  appreciation  and  respect  for  fore- 
runners, voluntary  leaders,  and  the  self-sacrificing  ones  of 
past  and  present;  wholesome  admiration  for  ourselves  as  a 
people;  convictions  that  safety  and  progress  for  a  republic 
are  only  possible  when  a  large  proportion  of  citizens  help 
to  direct  and  forward  the  ship  of  state;  and  faith  in  the 
wisdom  of  abiding  patiently  by  the  will  of  the  majority 
and  of  trusting  the  outcome  of  tolerant  discussion  in  heated 
issues.  Here  lie  large  possibilities  of  making  history  a  truly 
"civic"  subject.  The  historian,  solicitous  for  the  "logical 
integrity"  of  his  subject,  will  probably  object;  but  he  is 
prone  to  forget  that  in  the  grades  most  studies  are  not 
ends  in  themselves,  but  means.  Will  he  tell  us  in  clear  and 
certain  language  to  what  memorization  of  the  chronologically 
arranged  data  and  generalizations  of  history,  as  he  records 
it  in  the  ordinary  text,  leads  that  is  of  general  educational 
value? 

Similar  suggestions  apply  in  the  case  of  civics  for  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades.  Let  the  crowded  teacher  use 
the  text  first  of  all  for  "reading"  purposes.  Let  her  select 
a  few  large  topics  for  special  study  by  individual  pupils. 
Promote  ideals  and  insights  in  a  few  areas  of  major  sig- 
nificance and  interest.  Avoid  drill  and  memorization  of 
details  as  far  as  practicable. 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  63 

TO   A    SUPERINTENDENT    OF   SCHOOLS 

It  is  certainly  no  easy  matter  for  the  administrative 
officers  of  a  school  system,  responsible  for  the  organization 
of  courses  and  employment  of  teachers,  to  strike  happy 
mediums  amidst  the  conflicting  demands  made  by  educa- 
tional specialists  and  other  partisans  today.  In  the  upper 
grades  and  high  school  nearly  all  writers  on  educational 
subjects  are  special  pleaders  and  partisans  of  particular 
interests.  All  want  their  pet  subjects  made  obligatory,  since 
they  see  them  as  of  transcendent  importance.  The  recent 
history  of  various  committees  appointed  to  consider  the 
place  of  history  in  secondary  education  abundantly  demon- 
strates this.  They  have  worked  out  elaborate  series  of 
courses,  generally  with  the  suggestion  that  these  be  made 
prescribed  for  the  intermediate  grades  and  sometimes  even 
the  high  schools.  The  partisans  of  modern  languages  have 
succeeded  in  having  their  favorites  established  as  specific 
requirements  for  admission  to  college.  Home  economics 
teachers  in  many  cases  feel  very  keenly  that  all  girls  should 
be  required  to  take  home  economics.  It  is  a  matter  of 
history  how  required  algebra  and  plane  geometry  have  held 
their  places  in  high  schools.  We  are  now  confronted  with 
new  demands.  Civic  education,  physical  education,  and 
vocational  guidance,  to  say  nothing  of  vocational  training, 
are  not  only  urged  for  inclusion  in  high  school  curricula, 
but  in  each  case  partisans  are  anxious  to  impose  them  as 
requirements  on  all  pupils.  The  superintendents  must  find 
the  optimum  resultants  of  these  various  demands. 

New  demands.  Consider  here  the  new  demands  for  civic 
education.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  needs  of  our  country 
and  the  local  community  it  is  not  difficult  to  make  out 
a  case  for  the  need  of  more  and  better  civic  education.  We 
are,  of  course,  as  yet  sadly  in  need  of  the  sociological  analysis 
which  will  enable  us  not  merely  to  trace  the  existence  of 


64  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

prevailing  defects  of  citizenship,  but,  to  an  extent  that  has 
not  yet  been  done,  locate  them  in  particular  classes  and 
even  in  individuals  within  classes.  In  current  discussion  we 
are  apt  to  overlook  the  fact  that,  just  as  a  majority  of  adult 
human  beings  are  reasonably  healthy,  so  in  all  societies  a 
majority  of  adults  are  also  reasonably  moral  and  of  good 
civic  culture. 

The  fundamental  responsibilities  of  the  superintendent  of 
schools  for  civic  education  lie,  first,  in  the  development  of 
adequate  guiding  courses  for  teachers,  and  in  the  second 
place  in  bringing  to  bear  all  legitimate  pressure  for  the 
achievement  of  the  objectives  established  in  the  courses. 
The  following  are  submitted  as  considerations  of  moment 
to  superintendents  at  the  present  stage  in  the  evolution  in 
civic  education: 

1.  All  school  education  may  be  regarded  as  of  some  civic 
consequence.  Educational  mystics  are  fond,  however,  of 
deluding  themselves  and  others  with  the  idea  that  panaceas 
may  be  found  either  in  historic  types  of  school  material 
or  in  proposed  new  types.  Sound  sociological  analysis  of 
the  numberless  qualities  that  are  combined  in  the  kinds  of 
men  and  women  whom  we  agree  to  call  good  citizens  will 
show  that  many  probably  valuable  civic  qualities  are  the 
indirect  outgrowths  or  by-products  of  forms  of  education 
that  have  had  other  ends  than  civic  education  as  their 
primary  objectives.  Common  sense  will  tell  us  that  without 
vocational  proficiency  a  man  cannot  be  a  wholly  good  citizen; 
but  vocational  education  must  not  be  considered  as  having 
its  first  justification  in  civic  competency.  Citizens  with 
chronically  poor  health  or  physically  undeveloped  have  poor 
foundations  for  the  kind  of  civic  competency  that  the  coun- 
try needs,  no  matter  how  good  their  intentions  or  motives. 
Nevertheless,  physical  education  is  not  to  be  regarded  as 
primarily  designed  for  civic  purposes. 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  65 

2.  The  social  demand  of  our  time  for  more  direct  and 
more  purposive  civic  education  is  very  strong  and  without 
doubt  justified  by  the  increasing  complexity  of  our  social 
relationships.  But  our  interest  in  better  civic  education 
need  not  blind  us  to  the  remarkable  achievements  of  the 
past  in  America. 

3.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  new  and  important  discoveries 
in  the  field  of  civic  education  will  materially  change  work 
in  the  first  six  grades  or  with  children  under  12  years  of 
age.  Doubtless  considerable  improvement  of  means  and 
methods  can  be  devised  in  these  grades.  The  discipline  of 
the  schools  and  the  use  of  literature  and  historic  story  as 
a  means  of  promoting  ideals  and  appreciations  can  be  con- 
siderably extended.  By  informal  means  the  teacher  can 
promote  somewhat  greater  insight  into  neighborhood  social 
relationships  than  is  now  achieved. 

4.  Future  possibilities.  The  largest  possibilities  for  the 
evolution  of  civic  education  in  the  near  future  are  undoubt- 
edly to  be  found  in  the  grades  or  schools  that  contain  chil- 
dren from  12  to  16  years  of  age.  Here  we  have  the  last 
full-time  school  attendance  made  compulsory  by  law.  Here 
also  will  increasingly  be  found  departmental  teaching  and 
the  use  of  specially  prepared  instructors.  Throughout  this 
book  will  be  found  many  references  to  possible  means  of 
providing  for  better  civic  education  in  this  area.  These  may 
be  summarized  as  follows : 

a.  Less  rather  than  more  space  in  these  grades  should  be 
given  to  formal  or  didactic  American  history.  This  subject 
now  occupies  usually  from  15  to  20  per  cent  of  the  pupil's 
time  for  two  grades  and,  as  commonly  taught  from  the 
difficult  textbooks  in  use,  is  probably  without  important 
civic  results  for  large  proportions  of  pupils.  At  any  rate 
the  superintendent  should  shift  upon  the  history  specialist 
the  burden  of  proving  more  in  detail  than  has  yet  been 


66  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

done  the  actual  functional  values  toward  civic  education  of 
the  numberless  statements  of  fact  that  now  congest  the 
pages  of  the  typical  textbook  of  American  history. 

b.  All  prevailing  textbooks  in  civics  that  employ  primarily 
the  method  of  "didactic  inculcation" should  be  examined  from 
the  standpoint  of  their  probable  functioning  in  the  case  of 
at  least  90  per  cent  of  the  pupils. 

c.  The  very  large  possibilities  of  developmental  readings 
should  be  exploited  and  every  incentive  held  out  to  pub- 
lishing companies  to  develop  this  type  of  material.  If  ex- 
perience shows  that  service  and  dramatic  projects  are  not 
too  difficult  of  administration,  every  incentive  should  be 
held  out  to  departmental  teachers  to  make  use  of  these  as 
means. 

d.  Probably  the  "problem  method"  is  destined  to  be 
found  of  very  great  value  in  civic  education,  but  for  the 
present  it  must  wait  upon  the  development  of  more  adequate 
problems  and  of  manuals  and  handbooks  for  guidance. 

5.  The  junior  high  school.  We  have  only  begun  to  appre- 
ciate the  possibilities  of  the  junior  high  school  as  a  means 
of  realizing  the  objectives  of  civic  education.  The  junior 
high  school  of  the  future  will  almost  certainly  be  character- 
ized by  a  very  great  flexibility  in  curricula,  thus  making 
possible  a  considerable  diversity  of  offerings  according  to 
the  needs  of  various  case  groups  or  even  according  to 
dominant  interests  found.  As  suggested  elsewhere  it  will 
probably  prove  advisable  to  develop  a  group  of  teachers 
having  primary  responsibility  for  the  whole  field  of  civic 
education,  including  not  only  the  instructional  aspects,  but 
the  "activity"  aspects  as  well. 

6.  What  will  be  the  place  of  scouting  in  the  public  schools? 
(a)  It  must  be  recognized  that  the  fundamental  virtue  in 
scouting  at  the  present  time  is  its  dependence  on  volunteer 
service,    (b)  Scouting  is  at  its  best  always  when  the  members 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  67 

composing  the  troop  are  voluntarily  enlisted.  Obviously, 
this  and  the  first  condition  cannot  be  realized  under  public 
school  conditions,  (c)  It  does  seem  highly  desirable  to 
have  something  analogous  to  scouting  developed  under  pub- 
lic school  auspices.  Probably  this  should  take  the  form  of 
educational  organization  of  volunteer  groups,  formed  some- 
times for  exploration,  sometimes  for  home  service,  sometimes 
for  the  promotion  of  physical  training  or  practical  arts. 
Each  one  of  these  groups  should  have  the  direction  of  a 
teacher  appreciative  of  the  extent  to  which  the  cooperative 
endeavor  thus  developed  will  manifestly  serve  the  known 
ends  of  civic  education. 

7.  In  framing  courses  of  civic  education  superintendents 
should  be  on  guard  against  too  much  reliance  upon  the 
cooperative  aspects  of  games,  sports,  and  athletics  as  means. 
All  group  play  is,  of  course,  greatly  productive  of  social 
qualities.  The  easy  inference  that  these  qualities  naturally 
expand  from  the  limits  of  small  groups  and  as  between  very 
similar  competing  social  groups  is  probably  erroneous. 

8.  History  studies.  For  the  present,  as  stated  above,  it 
can  be  assumed  that  American  history  will  remain  one  of 
the  stable  and  difficult  subjects  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades.  The  writer  is  personally  convinced  that  American 
history  will,  especially  in  the  junior  high  school,  eventually 
be  very  much  reorganized  so  as  greatly  to  reduce  the 
strictly  chronological  portions  and  greatly  to  increase  the 
utilization,  through  the  social  science  subjects,  of  the  mate- 
rials of  American  history  in  shaping  the  ideals,  appreciations, 
and  especially  comprehensions,  centering  in  particular  social 
science  problems  or  topics. 

But  the  practical  suggestion  that  might  well  be  urged 
now  is  that  teachers  shall  reduce  the  amount  of  attention 
given  to  the  memorization  of  the  formal  facts  of  American 
history    and    correspondingly    extend    the    treatment,    and 


68  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

especially  that  of  an  interpretive  nature,  of  those  topics 
that  have  a  visible  and  tangible  connection  with  the  political 
problems  of  today  or  tomorrow. 

9.  The  way  is  now  clear  to  the  fuller  development  of 
community  civics  as  a  live  and  vital  topic  in  the  junior 
high  school.  This  community  civics  should  center  largely 
in  those  local  and  changeable  studies  of  problems  that  have  to 
do  with  political  action,  and  should  tend  to  extend  the  pupil's 
comprehension  of  the  social  life  about  him.  Some  excellent 
little  texts  are  now  available  in  this  field.  The  chief  re- 
sponsibility of  superintendents  here  is  the  selection  of 
teachers  who  can  themselves  organize  as  junior  high  school 
subjects  on  a  strictly  modern  pedagogical  basis  the  locally 
accessible  materials  of  community  civics  —  no  easy  task, 
even  under  most  favorable  conditions. 

School  government.  Most  administrators  have  doubtless 
considered  often  the  possibilities  of  school  self-government 
from  the  standpoint  of  civic  education.  They  are  now 
usually  agreed  in  this:  under  the  influence  of  live  teachers, 
or  even  more  under  competent  principals,  school  self-govern- 
ment, in  any  one  of  its  numerous  forms,  is  a  very  possible 
thing.  But  it  seems  doubtful  whether  it  is  an  economical 
or  effective  means  of  maintaining  schoolroom  and  school- 
building  order,  if  that  be  intended  as  its  sole  purpose.  In 
this  respect  it  reminds  one  very  much  of  the  endless  attempts 
that  are  made  by  communities  at  joint  or  cooperative  mar- 
keting. The  attempts  work  very  well,  and  seem  to  pay,  for 
a  while,  but  when  interest  lags  they  cease  to  be  profitable. 

10.  Self-government  should,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  a 
means  of  civic  education,  and  therefore  as  something  that 
should  be  undertaken  from  time  to  time  primarily  as  a  sort 
of  joint  civic  project.  Arrangements  should  be  made  with 
due  planning  whereby  the  pupils  of  a  room  or  a  school  or 
as  a  group  of  individuals  should  be  expected  for  a  certain 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS  69 

period  to  perform  collectively  or  through  representatives 
certain  civic  functions,  among  which  might  well  be  the  ad- 
ministration of  school  justice,  the  establishment  of  school  rules 
and  the  maintenance  of  school  order  or  the  orderly  conduct 
of  special  group  functions.  For  these  purposes  various  kinds 
of  machinery  might  well  be  devised,  including  school  city 
plans,  the  use  of  legislative  bodies,  and  the  like.  None  of 
these  should  involve  too  prolonged  service,  but  of  course 
time  enough  should  be  given  for  the  execution  of  the  project. 
From  one  month  to  three  months  might  amply  suffice,  in 
most  cases,  for  the  realization  of  educational  gains  to  an 
expected  point  of  "diminishing  returns.' ' 

11.  We  may  safely  assume  that  to  an  increasing  extent  all 
the  subjects  of  the  large  American  senior  high  school  will 
tend  to  be  elective,  and  that  pupils  will  be  more  intelligently 
guided  in  making  up  programs  of  study.  Hence,  until  further 
progress  has  been  made  in  the  study  of  educational  values, 
it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  it  is  worth  while  seriously 
to  consider  the  actual  prescription  of  any  civic  or  history 
subject  in  the  regular  high  school  grades. 

No  reference  need  be  made  here  to  the  history  subjects 
which  should  be  offered  as  elect ives.  Under  the  general 
head  of  civics  might  well  be  offered  at  least  three  elective 
subjects  that  could  easily  be  given  from  90  to  180  hours 
each.  The  first  of  these  might  well  be  called  "Social  Prob- 
lems," or,  if  the  subject  must  have  didactic  organization, 
"Elementary  Sociology."  The  second  should  be  "Civil 
Government,"  or  "  Elementary  Political  Science  "  or  "Civics  " ; 
and  the  third,  "Elementary  Economics."  In  every  case  the 
problem  method  should  be  developed  and  applied  as  fully 
as  possible. 


PART  TWO 

SOCIOLOGICAL  FOUNDATIONS  OF  CIVIC 
EDUCATION 


CHAPTER  FOUR 

Introductory  Considerations 

Each  and  every  variety  of  conscious  educational  procedure 
has  its  aims,  purposes,  or  objectives.  These,  as  we  find  them 
at  any  cross-sectioning  of  societies,  are  usually  crystallized 
as  faiths  or  customs,  with  their  attendant  appreciations, 
ideals,  and  half-insights.  In  some  cases  (and  these  bulk 
large  indeed  in  the  history  of  education)  aspirations  for 
change  rather  than  customs  give  us  the  principal  literature 
of  educational  aims. 

Social  conflicts.  As  with  nearly  all  other  "valuable  ends" 
or  "social  worths"  which  are  made  the  objectives  of  family, 
guild,  or  state  action,  conflicts  between  "individual  good" 
and  the  "good  of  all"  (or  of  the  group)  are  always  to  be 
found  in  education.  Parents  naturally  desire  the  social 
advance,  the  moral  uprightness,  the  religious  orthodoxy, 
and  the  vocational  success  of  their  children.  They  desire 
and  support  educational  programs  to  these  ends.  The 
church,  the  army,  the  old  guild,  the  state,  and  perhaps 
even  a  class-conscious  proletariat  or  aristocracy  desires  and 
supports  education  that  contributes  to  their  respective 
objectives  of  control,  greatness,  or  service.  Sociologically 
speaking,  "small  groups"  —  the  family,  village  community, 
vocational  group,  and  sect  —  tend  to  be  narrow,  intense,  and 
often  short-sighted,  but  very  articulate,  in  their  educational 
desires;  whilst  "large  groups"  —  municipality,  federation, 
political  party,  province,  nation  —  tend  to  be  diffuse,  inde- 
terminate, and  inarticulate. 

Education  now  tends  to  become  scientific  in  aims  and 
methods.  Heretofore  its  immediately  basic  sciences  —  psy- 
chology and  sociology  —  have  been  too  imperfectly  devel- 
oped to  permit  this.  Hence  as  a  field  of  practice  it  has 
lagged  behind  manufacturing,  transportation,  distance  com- 

73 


74  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

munication,  agriculture,  and  medicine  in  supplanting  beliefs 
and  customs  by  scientific  determination  of  purposes  and 
methods. 

The  methods  of  achieving  known  educational  objectives  — 
from  training  in  skill  of  handwriting  to  the  evoking  of  desired 
ideals  —  are  increasingly  to  be  determined  and  tested  by  psy- 
chology. The  discovery  of  specific  objectives  most  worth  while  is 
increasingly  to  be  achieved  through  the  help  of  sociology,  to 
which  we  must  turn  for  prognostications  as  to  the  probable 
future  opportunities  for  life  and  service  of  those  whom  we 
seek  to  educate  —  service,  that  is,  to  themselves  and  to 
their  fellows.  The  following  are  a  few  samples  of  the  num- 
berless problems  requiring  consideration  in  this  connection : 

1.  What  is  the  meaning  of  educational  sociology?  Pro- 
visional answers  can  be  obtained  through  analyses  suggested 
in  these  questions : 

a.  How  does  sociology  compare  with  astronomy,  chemis- 
try, physics,  mathematics,  geology,  biology,  bacteriology, 
and  psychology  as  to  possession  of  bodies  of  tested  knowledge, 
laws,  means  of  quantitative  description,  etc.? 

b.  How  does  education  compare  with  medicine,  war, 
agriculture,  architecture  (as  building  engineering),  mining, 
manufacturing,  distance  communication,  navigation,  elec- 
trical work,  and  worship,  as  to  evolution  of  extensive  systems 
of  practice,  effective  use  of  trial-and-error  methods,  per- 
sistence of  untested  tradition,  use  of  scientific  knowledge, 
disposition  of  workers  to  employ  science,  etc.? 

c.  How  does  educational  sociology  compare  as  to  organ- 
ization, usefulness,  availability  of  tested  materials  and  future 
prospects,  with:  navigational  astronomy,  agricultural  chem- 
istry, engineering  physics,  mining  geology,  medical  biology, 
educational  architecture,  educational  psychology,  business 
economics? 

d.  It  is  alleged  that  sociology  itself  is  onlv  a  scientific 


INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATIONS  75 

patchwork;  that  its  methods  are  chiefly  "philosophical" 
(meaning?)  rather  than  scientific;  and  that  it  has  few  con- 
tributions to  make  to  education  in  any  event.  What  are 
possibilities? 

e.  In  working  in  a  field  of  applied  science  how  far  is 
it  necessary  to  be  assured  of  tested  knowledge  in  the  related 
"pure"  fields?  In  practice  what  examples  can  we  cite  of 
problems  in  the  applied  field  itself  being  stated  and  studied? 
Illustrations  are  possible  from  agriculture,  navigation, 
war,  etc. 

/.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  study  of:  educational  psy- 
chology, educational  economics  (or  finance),  educational 
medicine  (or  hygiene),  educational  history  (or  history  of 
education)  ? 

g.  What  are  the  possible  uses  of  educational  sociology 
in  ascertaining:  (a)  the  social  characteristics  (including  in- 
stincts and  effects  of  environment)  of  those  whom  we  edu- 
cate; (b)  the  specific  aims  which,  for  a  specified  group, 
should  be  pursued  in  schools;  (c)  the  organization  of  means 
and  methods  of  education  to  serve  ascertained  specific  needs 
not  now  met;  (d)  the  readjustment  of  existing  means  (sub- 
jects) and  methods  so  as  to  meet  current  needs,  or  more 
effectively  to  meet  needs  that  have  always  been  known? 

2.  Subjects  of  study  and  research  in  educational  sociology 
should  have  one  or  more  of  the  following  characteristics: 

(a)  the  evident  practicability  of  applying  organized  knowl- 
edge of  individual  facts  or  principles  now  approved  in  soci- 
ology, anthropology,  ethnology,  government,  politics,  crim- 
inology, relief,  migration,  economics,  politics,  history,  etc.; 

(b)  the  practicability  of  proceeding  from  analysis  of  a  sup- 
posed educational  need  to  the  social  conditions  now  resulting 
where  this  need  is  not  met,  and  evaluating  consequent  losses 
to  society  or  to  certain  individuals  in  it;  (c)  the  practicability 
of   providing    improved    means    and    methods    of    meeting 


76  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

ascertained  needs  of  individuals  or  of  groups  or  of  society 
as  a  whole. 

In  view  of  the  yet  chaotic  character  of  sociological  sciences 
and  the  dominance  of  philosophical  methods  in  the  study 
of  their  larger  problems,  it  is  probable  that  most  problems 
to  be  studied  in  educational  sociology  during  the  next  five 
years  will  be  derived  directly  from  consideration  of  current 
or  approaching  educational  needs.    For  example: 

a.  Is  it  desirable  that  public  resources  be  used  to  support 
the  teaching  of  modern  languages  in  the  United  States? 
What  needs  will  be  served  by  such  studies?  What  languages? 
What  kinds  of  attainment  in  each  —  prescribed,  or  advised, 
or  permitted?  for  how  many? 

b.  Is  it  desirable  that  the  public  schools  enter  more 
extensively  upon  the  teaching  of  " citizenship"?  What  is 
citizenship?  What  is  education  (or  training)  for  citizenship? 
In  what  respects  is  present  adult  citizenship  (the  product 
of  the  teaching  of  5  to  30  years  ago)  bad?  in  what  groups 
or  classes?  by  what  standards?  What  preparation  for  citi- 
zenship is  given  by  non-school  agencies?  How  can  we 
ascertain  for  specified  groups  the  efficacy  of  this?  Should 
school  civic  education  replace  or  supplement  it?  Is  American 
history  a  valuable  means  of  civic  education?  How  do  we 
know?  What  are  the  most  effective  school  contributions 
now  made  toward  citizenship  at  ages  4-6;  6-12;  12-14; 
14-16;  16-18;  18-20;  extension,  etc.?  Do  vocational  educa- 
tion, physical  education,  and  cultural  education  make  impor- 
tant or  distinctive  contributions  to  civic  objectives? 

c.  Is  it  desirable  that  provision  be  made  at  public  expense 
for  vocational  education  in  City  B?  WTiat  are  occupational 
fields  now  open  in  City  B?  WThat  occupational  pursuits  are 
followed  away  from  City  B  by  persons  reared  in  that  city? 
How  have  adults  now  following  vocations  in  City  B  been 
trained  therefor?      WTiat  have  been  deficiencies  of  social 


INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATIONS  77 

training,  for  specified  classes  of  workers?  Are  needs  increas- 
ing or  is  non-school  education  becoming  less  ineffective? 
If  school  education  is  to  be  given  for  a  specified  vocation, 
what  shall  be  its  relations  to  non-school  vocational  educa- 
tion? What  standards  of  attainment  shall  it  set?  How  much 
shall  be  attempted  at  16-18  or  17-19?  How  much  postponed 
to  later  upgrading  stages,  full-time  or  part-time? 

d.  What  are  useful  purposes  now  served  by  mathematical 
studies?  What  better  purposes  should  control  in  such 
studies?   WTiat  better  uses  could  be  made  of  time  required? 

3.  Methods  to  be  used  in  study  of  problems  of  educational 
sociology  are  not  clearly  defined.  Wherever  accurate  de- 
scription is  sought  statistical  methods  are,  of  course,  neces- 
sary; but  many  of  the  situations  to  be  studied  are  less  in 
need  of  exact  quantitative  statement  than  of  other  forms 
of  study.  For  perspective  and  for  use  of  remote  data  his- 
torical methods  must  be  used. 

But  the  chief  problems  of  educational  sociology  center  in 
social  values  —  and  these  are  not  to  be  accurately  determined 
as  yet  by  either  quantitative  or  historical  methods,  because 
the  underlying  social  valuations  are  still  considered  by 
philosophical  methods.  It  is  easy  to  enumerate  abstractly 
such  social  valuations  as:  security  (of  personal  life),  health, 
wealth,  righteousness,  sociability,  knowledge,  beauty;  or 
life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness;  or  family,  vocation, 
communion  with  God,  Christian  fellowship;  or  "success," 
social  approval,  power,  etc.  But  sociology  gives  few  effective 
methods  of  determining  the  relative  values  of  these  "goods" 
or  of  the  extent  to  which  any  or  all  of  them  should  be  sought 
through  state  action,  school  education,  etc. 

The  following  methods  are  always  needed:  (a)  accurate 
definitions  of  terms;  (b)  concrete  analysis  of  general  con- 
cepts, as  used  so  abundantly  in  current  social  and  philo- 
sophical writings;   (c)  consideration  of  society  in  terms  of 


78  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

defined  social  groups,  specifically  described  as  to  prevailing 
age  of  members,  economic  position,  civic  status,  etc.;  (d) 
concrete  expression  of  social  values  as  product  of  composite 
opinion  (and  especially  of  persons  of  known  criteria  of 
evaluation) . 

Clear  and  definite  thinking  can  for  the  present  be  greatly 
facilitated  by  the  use  of  the  "case  group"  method.  In 
this  method  sociological  analysis,  evaluation,  and  construc- 
tive proposal  center  about  a  known  social  group,  rendered 
relatively  homogeneous  by  the  common  possession  of  one 
or  more  qualities.   The  following  are  illustrative : 

a.  The  French-Canadians  who  immigrate  into  New 
England  to  work  in  factories  are  largely  homogeneous  as 
regards  language,  religion,  culture,  sumptuary  standards,  and 
domestic  life.  It  is  alleged  that  among  the  men  from  30 
to  50  years  of  age  certain  political  qualities  (limitations, 
prepossessions,  aspirations)  are  prevalent.  These  mature 
men  can  readily  be  studied  in  respect  to  their  prevailing 
civic  behavior  —  that  is,  they  can  be  taken  as  a  fairly  con- 
crete, realistic,  and  peculiar  "case  group."  Their  "prevailing 
forms  of  civic  behavior"  can  be  evaluated,  if  necessary,  and 
conclusions  reached  as  to  what  "probable  shortages"  should 
be  anticipated  and  provided  against  in  the  oncoming  gener- 
ation. 

b.  We  thus  reach  a  basis  for  the  consideration  of  a  "pupils 
case  group."  Among  these  French-Canadian  factory  workers 
a  large  proportion  of  the  boys  from  10  to  15  years  of  age 
of  modal  intelligence  will  probably  walk  in  the  footsteps 
of  their  fathers,  except  for  certain  modifications  due  to 
American  environment,  general  progress,  and  the  purposive 
education  of  schools.  What  are  now  the  prevailing  social 
characteristics  of  these  boys?  What  specific  procedures  of 
civic  education  can  be  provided  to  correct  potential  civic 
shortages  similar  to  those  of  their  fathers? 


INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATIONS  79 

c.  In  practice  much  educational  procedure  has  always 
been  based  on  the  assumption  of  distinctive  group  or  class 
characteristics.  Children  in  schools  are  formed  into  "clashes," 
promoted,  and  admitted  to  higher  institutions  on  basis  of 
certain  qualities  rendering  the  groups  relatively  homogene- 
ous. The  blind  have  special  schools  because  of  the  defect 
which  they  possess  in  common. 

d.  Sociological  surveys  of  population  now  open  the  way 
to  discrimination  of  numberless  "case  groups,"  many  of 
which  deserve  careful  analysis  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
distinctive  educational  needs  to  which  they  give  rise.  Even 
where  we  postulate  as  desirable  a  common  goal  in  the  edu- 
cation of  all  —  e.g.,  certain  basic  qualities  of  "Americanism" 
—  it  will  be  found  that  the  "start"  toward  this  goal  already 
provided  for  varying  groups  by  heredity  and  social  environ- 
ment varies  greatly.  Only  by  considering  each  group  in 
respect  to  its  needs  and  possibilities  can  effective  procedures 
be  devised  —  a  truth  long  ago  learned  in  medicine,  military 
training,  and  industry. 

4.  Vague  objectives.  A  large  proportion  of  present 
writers  on  civic  education  content  themselves  with  vague 
terminologies,  general  terms,  and  indeterminate  aspirations. 
For  example,  it  is  often  urged  that  the  schools  should  teach 
cooperation.  In  fact,  it  is  now  a  general  belief  that  social 
education,  under  its  differentiations  of  moral,  civic,  and 
religious  education  should  aim  to  intensify,  diversify,  extend, 
or  otherwise  increase  cooperation  among  men.  But,  as  pre- 
liminary to  any  effective  planning  for  such  education,  it  is 
very  desirable  that  preliminary  study  be  given  to  questions 
like  these: 

A.    DEFINITIONS 

(1)  What  is  the  derivation  of  the  word  "cooperation"? 

(2)  Give  any  single  example  of  its  most  common  usage. 


80  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

(3)  Frame  two  or  more  definitions. 

(4)  Does  it  seem  related  to:  physical  health;  intelligence; 
age;  sex;  race;  character  of  work;  education? 

B.    FROM   PERSONAL   EXPERIENCE 

(5)  What  were  your  strong  cooperative  qualities  at  ages, 
6;  12;  15;  21;  when  you  first  became  independent  and 
self-supporting;  when  other  fundamental  changes  in 
your  life  had  occurred? 

(6)  Similar  questions  as  to  noticeably  weak  qualities  of 
cooperation? 

(7)  In  what  respects  have  associates  tried  to  educate  you 
toward  better  cooperation? 

(8)  In  what  respects  have  schools  done  so? 

(9)  What  circumstances  as  to  associates  have  impaired 
your  powers  of  cooperation? 

(10)  In  what  respects  have  powers  of  cooperation  been  so 
instinctive  as  to  be  practically  unconscious? 

(11)  In  what  respects  have  forms  of  cooperation  become 
habitual  with  you? 

(12)  Discovering  some  respect  in  which  your  cooperative 
abilities  are  inferior  or  unsatisfactory,  how  would  you 
proceed  toward  self -education  for  improvement? 

C.  FROM  YOUR  OBSERVATION  OF  OTHERS 

(13)  What  species  of  animals  have  you  observed  closely 
cooperating? 

(14)  Do  children  from  2  to  5  years  of  age  cooperate? 

(15)  When  children  are  7  to  10  years  of  age,  is  there  co- 
operation in  a  classroom  during  penmanship  exercises? 

(16)  Report  instances  of  cooperation  between  employer  and 
employee. 

(17)  Do  physicians  and  patients  cooperate? 

(18)  When  you  buy  an  article  in  a  store,  is  there  cooperation  ? 


INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATIONS  81 

(19)  Do  mothers  and  children  cooperate? 

(20)  Do  brothers  cooperate? 

(21)  Do  black  and  white  children,  under  10  years  of  age, 
in  Southern  villages,  cooperate? 

(22)  Do  rich  white  men  and  poor  black  men  in  Georgia 
cooperate? 

(23)  Is  a  partnership  a  form  of  cooperation? 

(24)  Does  a  stock  company  or  corporation  involve  a  high 
grade  of  cooperation? 

(25)  Does  the  relationship  of  passenger  and  conductor  on 
a  railway  train  involve  cooperation? 

(26)  Is  the  prevailing  relationship  of  elector  (voter)  and 
public  office  holder  one  of  cooperation? 

(27)  What  differences  do  you  see  between  the  cooperation 
of  guests  and  waiters  in  a  hotel  and  that  of  the  mem- 
bers of  a  political  party? 

(28)  What  differences  of  cooperation  do  you  see  between 
the  members  of  an  old  political  party  and  those  of 
one  just  forming? 

(29)  What  kinds  of  cooperation  do  you  detect  among  school 
children? 

(30)  If  the  formal  and  official  relationships  between  teachers 
and  pupils  are  not  cooperation,  how  shall  they  be 
designated? 

(31)  Is  cooperation  now  found  between  labor  and  capital? 
Or  rather  in  a  large  railroad  system  between  stock- 
holders and  other  employed  executives  on  the  one 
hand  and  other  employed  laborers  on  the  other? 

D.    FROM   HISTORIC    SOURCES 

(32)  Does  it  seem  to  you  that  savages  or  primitive  men 
cooperated  better  than  do  modern  men? 

(33)  How  would  you  describe  the  cooperation  within  the 
Jesuit  Order? 


82  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

(34)  How  would  you  distinguish  cooperation  as  found 
among  pirates  from  that  found  among  the  men  of 
1776  in  the  colonies? 

(35)  How  would  you  distinguish  the  cooperations  of  an 
adult  East  Side  gang  from  those  of  a  church  con- 
gregation? 

From  detailed  analysis  similar  to  the  foregoing  we  should 
be  able  to  divest  ourselves  of  the  habits,  hampering  many 
writers  and  speakers,  of  thinking  of  "cooperation"  as 
"simple."  We  can  proceed  to  determine  and  designate 
various  species  and  intensively  to  study  one  or  more  of 
these. 


CHAPTER  FIVE 

The  Sociological  Meaning  of  Education 

what  is  education? 

The  term  "education"  has  been  variously  used  in  recent 
literature  of  the  subject.  Perhaps  its  philosophical  con- 
notations are  now  hopelessly  confused.  For  sociological 
purposes  it  seems  best  to  agree  upon  certain  definitions 
more  or  less  inductively  derived. 

Men  and  women  in  their  maturity  and  at  the  maximum 
of  their  powers  are  the  products  of  the  two  sets  of  influences, 
respectively  referred  to  under  the  words  " heredity"  and 
"environment."  Heredity  is  assumed  to  be  uncontrollable 
as  far  as  the  individual  is  concerned.  (Collectively,  of 
course,  it  is  controllable  through  selection  of  potential 
parents  —  i.e.,  eugenics.)  But  environment,  both  material 
and  social,  is,  within  limits,  controllable. 

Every  group  of  human  beings,  from  the  family  to  the 
nation,  exerts  controls  over  the  social  environments  of  its 
members,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  accidentally  or 
intentionally,  through  material,  or  through  human,  agencies. 
Where  control  of  environmental  conditions,  extending  to  such 
specific  forms  as  instruction  and  training,  is  directed  toward 
increasing,  hindering,  or  otherwise  modifying  "natural 
growth"  in  any  of  its  myriad  forms*  we  have  what  will 
here  be  called  education.  Obviously  such  control  may  be 
consciously  purposive,  or  its  purposes,  subconsciously  de- 
rived, may  be  obscured  in  custom  and  unconscious  social 
routines.  The  resulting  effects  may  appear  in  bqdUy_changes, 
or  in  mental  habits,  appreciations,  ideals,,  and  knowledge. 

Heredity  and  environment.  Profitless  debate  is  often 
indulged  in  as  to  whether  "heredity"  or  "environment"  is 
the  "more  important."    Obviously  one  might  as  well  ask 

83 


84  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

whether  the  brain  or  the  stomach  is  more  important  in  the 
individual  economy.  Without  the  peculiar  plasticities  of 
nerve  and  other  tissue,  environments  of  course  could  produce 
nothing;  whilst  such  tissue  must  be  acted  upon  at  least 
by  those  environmental  influences  called  nurture  to  be  of 
any  significance  whatever. 

Any  one  of  scores  of  functions  may  profitably  be  examined 
as  illustrative  here  —  for  example,  speech.  Heredity  gives 
vocal  organs  and  their  directive  nerve  structures.  Environ- 
ment —  nurtural,  including  social  example  —  gives  forms 
for  development  —  language.  Purposive  education  corrects 
or  reinforces  the  growths  stimulated  by  environment  and 
thus  gives  correct  or  effective  speech.  Similarly,  the  in- 
quisitive learner  will  trace  the  sources  and  development  of 
adult  appreciations  and  powers  of:  running;  handwriting; 
maternal  care;  love  of  literature;  gang  cooperations;  religious 
aspirations;  and  hundreds  of  others. 

The  ease  with  which  appreciations  and  powers  are  ac- 
quired depends  obviously  on  limitations  set  by  qualities 
of  inheritance,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  effectiveness 
of  educative  environmental  adjustments,  on  the  other. 
"Nature"  (as  we  say)  has  made  man  unable  to  thrive  upon 
grass,  to  live  under  water,  or  to  fly  by  muscular  powers. 
She  makes  some  people  easily  able  to  go  far  in  learning- 
pugilism,  music,  or  mathematics.  She  denies  large  structure 
of  body  to  some,  of  mind  to  others,  and,  probably,  of  moral 
sensibility  to  still  others.  The  "  educability "  of  every  indi- 
vidual, as  respects  any  function,  is  clearly  a  limited 
quantity. 

Insufficient  food,  rest,  or  play  "stunts"  the  body,  just  as 
poor  educational  stimuli  give  deficient  speech,  low  moral 
character,  or  narrow  range  of  knowledge.  But  on  the  positive 
side  in  all  organization  of  educational  means,  a  point  of 
"diminishing  returns"  is  sooner  or  later  reached. 


SOCIOLOGICAL  MEANING  OF  EDUCATION         85 

EDUCATION  IN  THE  BROADEST  SENSE 

Education,  then,  is  a  product  of  all  group  activities  Its 
effects  flow  also,  in  primitive  varieties,  from  the  contact  of 
the  individual  with  the  non-human  elements  of  his  environ- 
ment. The  experience  thus  gained  by  contact  with  stones, 
water,  winds,  fire,  and  animals  might  helpfully  be  called 
self-education.  But  the  human  environment  surrounding 
and  affecting  every  individual  is  so  pervasive  and  enveloping 
that  in  effect  it  practically  always  conditions  the  contacts 
thus  made,  as  well  as  gives  significance  to  the  resulting 
experiences.  Hence  education  may  practically  be  termed 
a  "social  process." 

Extra-school  education.  xAll  persons  are  in  a  degree  in- 
stinctively teachers,  especially  toward  those  who  are  younger, 
smaller,  less  able,  or  otherwise  "inferior"  to  themselves. 
Equally  all  persons  are  instinctively  learners,  especially 
from  those  who  are  older,  wiser,  abler,  or  otherwise  superior 
to  them.  Sociologically,  the  family  is  commonly  the  most 
compact,  as  well  as  also,  usually,  the  most  heterogeneous, 
of  all  social  groups.  Within  it  education  goes  on  incessantly, 
but  commonly  toward  goals  that  are  held  as  only  half- 
conscious  precipitates  of  custom  or  convention. 

Within  vocational  groups  —  employer-employee,  master- 
servant,  partners,  guild,  union,  corporation  —  certain  forms 
of  education  are  never  absent.  The  same  is  largely  true 
also  within  religious  groups,  sociability  groups,  community 
parties,  cults,  and  states.  The  great_  majority  of ,  social 
groups  persist,  whilst  their  numbers  come  and  go.  Ac- 
cessioned members  are  usually  subje£ted.ija^uccatiye. influ- 
ences to  fit  them_fpx_the_-gr-oup  —  from  the  baby  growing 
up  in  the  Tamily,  the  neighborhood,  or  the  state,  to  the 
adult  adopted  into  a  fraternity,  a  club,  a  corporation,  or 
citizenship.  Education  thus  becomes  one  of  the  means  of 
social  control  —  not  by  any  means  the  only  one,  but  in 


86  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

some  cases  the  most  effective  one,  partly  because  the  most 
economical  one. 

Education  or  educative  processes  can  profitably  be  ana- 
lyzed with  reference  to  the  social  groups,  for  whose  furtherance 
or  interests  they  are  effected  —  from  the  family,  local  com- 
munity, clique,  and  party  at  one  end,  to  the  federation, 
nation,  and  hierarchical  system  (including  service  to  God) 
at  the  other.  The  incessant  interactions  of  individual  and 
group  here  should  be  understood.  Much  education  is  con- 
sciously designed  "for  the  good  of  the  individual,"  but  in 
turn  the  "good"  of  the  individual  is  seldom  conceived  as 
an  end  in  itself.  The  "good  individual"  becomes  in  turn 
"good"  for  one  or  another  social  group,  perhaps  for  that 
abstract  collectivity  of  social  groups  called  "society"  or 
"humanity." 

Educative  processes  may  profitably  be  studied  with 
relation  to  the  agencies  which  prominently  carry  them  on. 
The  home,  the  playground,  the  church,  the  work  place,  the 
club,  the  press,  the  stage,  the  library,  the  police  power  are 
notable  agencies  whose  educational  purposiveness  is  com- 
monly less  direct  or  comprehensive  than  that  of  "the  school," 
which  is,  generally,  an  agency  created  primarily  to  promote 
some  form  of  education.  Several  or  all  of  these  agencies 
may  obviously  be  more  or  less  influenced  by  any  social 
group  as  to  the  aims  or  methods  of  the  education  it  permits 
or  consciously  gives.  Sometimes  the  family,  sometimes  the 
church,  and  for  the  present  the  state,  is  given  relative 
ascendency  here.  The  home  is  only  slightly  affected  by  state 
oversight;  in  America  the  church,  stage,  press,  playground, 
club,  shop,  and  private  school  are  essentially  private  agencies; 
whilst  the  library,  police  power,  and  public  school  are  very 
much  under  public  direction. 


SOCIOLOGICAL  MEANING  OF  EDUCATION         87 

SCHOOL   EDUCATION 

Educators  are  prone,  naturally,  to  exaggerate  the  potency 
of  school  education.  Helpful  methods  of  evaluating  con- 
tributions of  various  agencies  can  be  devised  by  taking  (a) 
an  adult  case  group  and  (b)  a  specific  form  of  bodily  or 
mental  quality  known  to  be  possessed  by  them,  and  tracing 
the  latter  to  its  origins.   For  example: 

a.  College  graduates,  men  aged  40-60  in  business,  exhibit 
moderate  (or  very  modest)  reading  knowledge  of  French. 
Sources  will  of  course  usually  be  found  in  schools,  b.  Same 
exhibit  certain  more  or  less  standardized  manners  toward 
ladies.  To  what  extent,  probably,  have  home,  sociability 
association,  and  schools  respectively  contributed?  c.  Same 
exhibit  certain  varieties  of  vocational  success.  Sources  in 
home,  schools,  "shop"  experience?  d.  Same  exhibit  certain 
characteristic  civic  qualities.   Sources? 

e.  African  savage  men,  aged  30-40,  exhibit  certain  pre- 
vailing qualities  of  physical  well-being.  Trace  sources, 
apart  from  heredity,  to  family  nurture,  tribal  customs, 
warrior  training,  etc.  /.  Same  exhibit  certain  distinctive 
moral  qualities.   Trace  to  sources. 

g.  The  "owning  farmers,"  40  to  50  years  of  age,  of  North 
Mississippi  Valley  states  exhibit  distinctive  types  of  voca- 
tional proficiency,  health,  moral  traits,  civic  and  cultural 
qualities.  Trace  to  sources  their:  habitual  literary  interests; 
abilities  to  apply  principles  of  scientific  agriculture;  defects 
in  cooperative  enterprise;  general  good  health. 

h.  It  is  alleged  that  "middle  class"  married  American 
women  of  high  school  education  or  more,  between  ages  of 
30  and  40,  are  prevailingly  of  the  "nervous  housewife" 
order,  as  respects  health  —  that  is,  are  excessively  subject 
to  neurasthenia,  in  spite  of  property,  social  position,  sub- 
normal number  of  children,  and  small  amount  of  work. 
Trace  defects  to  probable  sources  in  heredity  or  environment. 


88  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

QUALITATIVE    DISTINCTIONS   IN   EDUCATION 

For  practical  purposes  it  is  serviceable  to  divide  specific 
forms  of  education  into  (a)  developmental  or  "beta"  and 
(6)  projective  or  "alpha"  types  respectively,  according  as 
they  primarily:  (1)  aid  or  make  possible  fairly  normal  types 
of  development  as  these  are  strongly  projected  by  hereditary 
predispositions;  and  (2)  train  or  instruct  toward  relatively 
artificial  objectives  dictated  by  supposed  needs  of  civilized 
or  other  highly  organized  life.  The  ordinary  physical  plays 
of  childhood;  the  learning  of  vernacular  speech  in  the  home; 
the  enjoyment  of  music;  interests  in  popular  stories  as  told 
or  read;  hunting  arts  for  adolescents;  social  intercourse; 
the  fear  of  the  unseen  —  are  examples  of  the  first  order. 
Handwriting;  a  foreign  language  acquired  after  childhood; 
a  trade  well  learned;  the  solution  of  mathematical  problems; 
the  substitution  of  correct  for  incorrect  vernacular  structures 
or  pronunciations  in  maturity;  the  learning  of  the  "manual 
of  arms"  —  are  usually  examples  of  the  second  order.  If 
the  connotations  of  the  words  permitted,  we  might  profitably 
call  the  first  "natural"  learning  and  the  second  "artificial" 
learning.  Under  favorable  circumstances  the  objectives  of 
the  first  order  will  usually  best  be  realized  in  the  "play" 
spirit;  and  those  of  the  second  in  the  "work"  spirit. 

"The  child  is  instinctively  a  learner,"  it  is  often  said. 
True  —  in  certain  areas  of  life's  activities,  and  up  to  a 
certain  degree  of  fineness  or  arduousness  of  effort.  But  in 
other  areas,  and  beyond  certain  points,  the  coercions  of  fear, 
of  love,  and  of  desire  for  "goods"  to  be  achieved  only 
through  the  means  of  toil  and  concentration,  are  needful. 
Schools  are  provided  by  societies  largely  to  provide  just 
these  coercions  and  the  controlled  conditions  needed  for  the 
work.  Coercion  is  more  necessary  to  teach  routine  corn 
hoeing  than  to  teach  fishing..  The  multiplication  table  is 
learned  less  easily  than  the  vernacular.  Imitative  singing 
comes  more  readily  than  notation  reading. 


SOCIOLOGICAL  MEANING  OF  EDUCATION         89 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  AIMS  BASED  ON  SOCIAL  OBJECTIVES 

The  numberless  specific  varieties  of  education  may  be 
classified  for  convenience  in  several  different  ways.  For- 
merly the  terms  intellectual,  moral,  spiritual,  and  physical 
were  used  to  designate  different  varieties,  based,  presumably, 
upon  assumed  differences  in  the  make-up  or  "nature"  of 
the  learner.  The  evolution  of  schools  has  given  many  cate- 
gories based  upon  the  logical  divisions  into  which  knowledge 
and  skills  fall.  Thus  we  obtain  such  groupings  as  linguistic, 
literary,  scientific,  mathematical,  artistic,  historical,  and 
professional.  More  specifically  we  find  schools,  or. aJL least 
classes,  in  spelling,  French,  Shakespearean  dramas,  trigonome- 
try, chemistry,  English  history,  geography^  music,  chorus, 
painting,  dancing,  rifle  shooting,  stenography,  oral  surgery, 
and  very  many  other  "subjects^" 

It  is  probable  that  the  scientific  study  of  the  desirable 
and  feasible  objectives  of  education  (for  varying  kinds  of 
learners  and  to  meet  varying  conditions  of  environment) 
will  find  of  most  service  classifications  based  upon  objective 
study  of  the  products  of  education  as  achieved  or  desired 
on  behalf  of  the  members  of  societies.  And  since,  scientifi- 
cally as  well  as  popularly,  infancy  is  "preparation  for  life" 
(adult  life  chiefly  of  course),  these  products  will  have  to 
be  studied  mainly  as  they  exhibit  themselves  in  adult  years. 

Social  groups.  One, hundred  American  men  from  35  to 
55  years  of  age,  chosen  at  random  either  from  all  Americans, 
or  from  a  defined  class  —  e.g.,  men  of  high  school  education 
in  business;  men  of  less  than  fifth-grade  education;  tenant 
farmers  of  a  given  area;  journeymen  carpenters;  adherents 
of  the  Methodist  church;  regular  patrons  of  good  drama, 
etc.  —  exhibit  a  large  variety  of  powers  and  appreciations 
as  respects :  use  of  English,  literary  interests,  moral  character, 
civic  ideals,  healthfulness,  vocational  success,  etc.  By  cur- 
rent standards  of  social  valuation  some  of  these  qualities, 


90  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

as  found  in  a  large  proportion  of  the  individuals  under 
consideration,  are  "satisfactory"  —  or  the  reverse.  From 
this  sociological  starting  point  ought  to  begin  processes, 
first  of  evaluating  the  education  which  these  men  have  had, 
and  second  of  planning  for  better  or  otherwise  different 
education,  for  the  next  generation.  Probably  only  through 
some  such  processes  as  this  can  we  finally  learn  how  to 
trace  respectively  to  heredity  and  to  various  phases  of 
environmental  influence,  including  conscious  education,  the 
origins  of  the  qualities  we  find. 

PHYSICAL   AND   VOCATIONAL   EDUCATION 

From  the  composites  of  qualities  that  we  find  in  adults 
it  is  even  now  practicable  to  derive  certain  groupings  which 
are  very  useful  as  throwing  light  on  possible  means  and 
methods  of  producing  similar  or  different  qualities  in  the 
next  generation.  Thus  a  large  variety  of  qualities  composing 
"physical  well-being"  stand  out  —  the  healthful  functioning 
of  teeth  and  lungs  and  heart,  the  ability  to  withstand  com- 
municable disease,  the  possession  of  strength  and  endurance 
easily  to  sustain  the  strains  of  vocation,  the  tastes  for  physi- 
cal activity  that  make  leisure  time  a  zestful  experience. 
"Physical  education"  can,  therefore,  be  made  a  convenient 
bracket  for  all  those  forms  of  more  or  less  purposive  controls 
of  nurturing  environment,  trainings  of  bodily  function, 
instruction  in  hygiene,  and  idealization  of  "the  sound  body" 
which  are  designed  to  minister  in  minor  measure  to  the 
immediate  physical  well-being  of  the  infant,  and  in  major 
measure  to  that  of  the  adult. 

Similarly  the  qualities  that  distinctively  make  for  the 
vocational  efficiency  of  adults  stand  out.  "Job  analysis" 
on  the  one  hand  and  "individual  diagnosis"  (vocational) 
on  the  other  are  now  in  process  of  rapid  development  in 
accordance  with  scientific  method.    Presently  we  shall  be 


SOCIOLOGICAL  MEANING  OF  EDUCATION         91 

able,  it  would  seem,  after  measuring  the  success  of  an  in- 
dividual in  his  vocation,  to  trace  to  their  respective  sources 
in  heredity,  nurturing  environment,  general  education,  "pick- 
up" vocational  education,  and  school  vocational  education 
the  factors  of  this  success.  The  next  step,  naturally,  would 
be  to  improve  in  specific  measures  upon  the  discovered 
educational  means  for  the  benefit  of  the  next  generation. 

CULTURAL   AND    SOCIAL   EDUCATION 

A  variety  of  qualities,  lying  largely  apart  from  the  voca- 
tional and  health  categories,  have  been  historically  com- 
prehended by  the  elastic  word  "culture."  Manifestly  the 
abilities  of  adults  to  use  the  vernacular  in  oral  and  written 
forms  for  purposes  of  general  and  social  intercourse  should 
be  included  here.  So  also  should  those  numerous  intellectual 
and  aesthetic  "non-utilitarian"  interests  that  are  capable  of 
extensively  enriching  life.  Even  the  arithmetic,  reading, 
nature  study,  and  geography  of  the  elementary  school  can 
well  be  included  here,  since  their  vocational  and  civic  "func- 
tioning" in  adult  activities  are  relatively  minor  to  their 
contributions  to  personal  culture  as  found  in  "high-grade 
utilization."  Some,  at  least,  of  the  cultural  "shortages"  or 
defects  of  adult  case  groups  are  easily  capable  of  determina- 
tion as  a  basis  of  discovering  specific  objectives  for  the 
better  education  of  the  rising  generation. 

Finally  there  can  readily  be  diagnosed  in  any  group  of 
adults  a  host  of  moral,  civic,  and  religious  qualities  that 
primarily  affect  their  "social  group"  relationships.  To  these 
we  often  apply  the  standards  of  ethical  evaluation  —  good, 
moral,  righteous,  honorable,  fair,  decent,  altruistic,  lovable, 
etc.,  on  the  one  hand;  and  bad,  immoral,  sinful,  dishonorable, 
unfair,  indecent,  self-seeking,  etc.,  on  the  other.  Since  all 
men  have  lived  from  infancy  in  social  groups,  the  educative 
influences  that  have  operated  to  shape  the  "social  natures" 


92  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

given  by  original  heredity  have  been  all  but  numberless. 
Nevertheless,  as  social  groups  grow  in  complexity,  whilst 
"original  nature"  does  not  materially  change  with  successive 
generations,  the  field  of  purposive  "social  education"  (a 
good  term  to  include  moral,  civic,  and  religious  education) 
waxes  steadily  in  importance  and  scope. 

Other  classifications  of  educational  objectives  may  prove 
helpful.  Sociological  analysis  shows  that  a  large  proportion 
of  the  activities  of  men  fall  into  two  groups,  indicated  by 
the  words  "productive"  and  "utilizing."  Of  great  sociologi- 
cal significance  is  the  fact  that  the  processes  of  social  evolu- 
tion persistently  narrow  and  specialize  the  field  of  any 
individual's  effective  production  whilst  at  the  same  time 
expanding  his  field  of  utilization.  The  men  and  women  of 
America  follow,  according  to  fineness  of  classification,  from 
two  thousand  to  five  thousand  distinctive  vocations;  but 
as  utilizers  of  the  world's  science,  music,  architecture,  useful 
arts,  civic  service,  transportation,  foodstuffs,  fabrics,  and 
housing,  the  scope  of  their  utilization  widens  continuously 
and  the  quality  of  such  utilization  improves  partly  as  our 
schools  train  in  right  tastes  and  judgments.  In  production 
men  become  increasingly  dependent  on  environment,  whilst  in 
utilization  they  become  relatively  independent  of  it. 

"Education  for  leisure"  and  "education  for  good  family 
membership"  denote  groups  of  objectives  urged  for  special 
consideration  by  some  educators. 

The  "disciplined  mind"  is  obviously  an  important  possible 
objective  in  education,  but  probably  not  apart  from  specific 
functionings  in  useful  or  pleasing  forms  of  vocational,  civic, 
and  cultural  powers  and  appreciations.  It  is  poor  logic  and 
worse  science  to  speak  of  the  "trained  body"  or  the  "trained 
hand,"  apart  from  the  service-rendering  functions  given  by 
those  mechanisms.  Similarly,  it  is  valid  to  assume  that 
no  great  importance  attaches  to  specific  forms  of  mental 


SOCIOLOGICAL  MEANING  OF  EDUCATION         93 

training  except  as  these  "function"  in  the  approved  activi- 
ties of  life  —  and  chiefly,  again,  in  adult  life. 

Loose  interpretations  of  some  of  the  current  literature 
of  education  may  easily  lead  to  a  confusing  of  means  and 
rrethods  on  the  one  hand  with  objectives  on  the  other. 
Those  who  seek  escape  from  the  formalisms  of  historic  types 
of  schools  and  subjects  of  study  talk  much  in  terms  of 
"activities"  and  "projects."  But  these  obviously  are  means, 
not  ends  —  except, perhaps,  for  a  few  "developmental"  ob- 
jectives. They  are  means  —  but  to  what  known  ends? 
Here  much  of  contemporary  educational  thinking  becomes 
vague  and  inarticulate.  Before  effective  "correlation"  as 
a  means  or  method  of  education  becomes  finally  effective, 
there  must  be  clearer  understanding  than  we  yet  possess 
(except  perhaps  as  respects  the  specific  powers  of  spelling 
and  handwriting)  of,  first,  the  desirable,  and  second,  the 
feasible,  objectives  that  should  or  can  be  realized  on  behalf 
of  specified  groups  or  levels. 

It  is  important  in  all  groupings  of  the  adult  qualities 
that  profitably  suggest  classifications  of  educational  objec- 
tives, to  distinguish  focal  (or  primary)  from  marginal  (or 
secondary)  aspects.  Thus  health,  moral  rectitude,  and  per- 
sonal culture  often  play  a  part  in  vocational  success;  but 
they  are  accessory,  not  primary  factors,  and  are  not  legiti- 
mately to  be  sought  as  central  objectives  in  vocational 
education.  Vocational  success  is  often  a  factor  in  healthful  - 
ness,  civic  behavior,  or  even  personal  culture;  but  it  is  not 
a  primary  and  universal  factor  except  by  very  forced  and 
needlessly  artificial  interpretations.  Here  we  shall  be  much 
helped  by  discriminating  study  of  the  valuations  that  have 
grown  out  of  the  common  experience  of  mankind. 


CHAPTER  SIX 

The  Meaning  of  Social  Education 

PRELIMINARY   ANALYSES 

The  specific  objectives  of  social  education  can  best  be 
considered  in  connection  with  the  particular  group  relation- 
ships which  are  intended  to  be  affected.  Some  social  groups 
are  properly  civic  groups,  some  are  not.  Many  social  virtues 
or  social  vices  are  capable,  of  course,  of  affecting  a  man's 
relationships  to  several  kinds  of  groups;  but  effective  pro- 
cedure will  often  require  that  in  education  the  principal 
group  relationship  be  kept  in  the  foreground.  The  chief 
social  groups  requiring  consideration  are : 

a.  The  family  or  domestic  groups,  involving  the  relation- 
ships of  children  to  parents,  parents  to  children,  brothers 
to  brothers,  husbands  to  wives,  etc.  The  principal  moral 
virtues  here  are  various  fairly  tangible  varieties  or  species 
of  cooperation,  fidelity,  loyalty,  tolerance,  truthfulness, 
chastity,  frankness,  reticence,  kindliness,  obedience,  leader- 
ship, submission,  respect  for  authority,  self-restraint,  self- 
denial,  etc.  Recall  the  connotations  or  implications  of  such 
words  as:  filial,  fraternal,  parental,  conjugal. 

The  principal  moral  vices  are  certain  easily  recognized 
forms  of  antagonism,  conflict,  anger,  brutality,  jealousy, 
sulkiness,  insubordination,  irresponsibility  of  leadership, 
cruelty,  greediness. 

The  following  sociological  conditions  should  be  noted. 
(1)  The  membership  of  the  family  group  is  very  heterogene- 
ous. Hence  subordination  and  superordination  play  a  large 
part,  and  failures  of  proper  functioning  easily  become 
grievous  sources  of  disharmony.  (2)  The  membership  is 
exceedingly  intimate.  (3)  Instinctive  reactions  play  a  large 
role,  often  and  easily  overriding  habits  formed  educationally, 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  95 

frequently  for  bad,  sometimes  for  good,  ends.  (4)  The 
family  is  the  center  of  cooperative  utilization  and,  although 
in  lessening  degree,  of  cooperative  production.  Hence 
sumptuary  and  industrial  disharmonies  easily  arise. 

6.  Neighborhood  groups  in  their  non-political  relationships. 
Many  of  the  traditions  and  perhaps  some  of  the  instinctive 
reactions  in  neighborhood  groups  derive  from  a  time  when 
kinship  was  a  determining  bond.  Under  primitive  social 
conditions  neighborhood  groupings  assured  cooperative  pro- 
duction, including  defense,  and  sometimes  cooperative  utili- 
zation. They  have  always  contributed  to  sociability,  friendly 
intercourse,  relief  of  distress,  joint  worship,  cultural  coopera- 
tion, etc.  At  any  age,  sex,  or  occupational  level  they  are 
usually  quite  homogeneous  as  respects  composition  by  family 
groups,  subject  to  well-known  minor  forms  of  "aristocracy." 

The  conspicuous  virtues  here  are  certain  easily  defined 
forms  of  toleration,  kindliness,  mutual  aid,  chastity,  regard 
for  property  rights,  truthfulness,  moral  courage,  self-denial, 
friendliness,  reticence,  etc. 

The  conspicuous  vices  are  certain  varieties  of:  selfishness, 
intolerance,  pugnacity,  backbiting,  cliquishness,  tale-bearing, 
"gangishness,"  unfriendliness,  jealousy,  envy,  unchastity, 
property  dishonesty,  obscene  speech,  gossip,  etc. 

c.  Vocational  groups,  formed  for  cooperation  in  production 
or  in  meeting  conditions  incident  to  production.  Conspicuous 
relationships  are  those  of  master  and  apprentice,  employer 
and  employee,  partners,  agent  and  principal,  etc.  (School 
groups  may  be  regarded  as  primarily  vocational  groups.) 

The  conspicuous  virtues  here  are  specific  varieties  of:  in- 
dustriousness,  honesty,  truthfulness,  loyalty,  tolerance,  co- 
operation, subordination,  responsibility,  conscientiousness,  etc. 

The  conspicuous  vices  are  recognized  varieties  of :  idleness, 
deceit,  insubordination,  disloyalty,  dishonesty,  scamping, 
disorderliness,  etc. 


96  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

d.  Religious  groups  formed  for  purposes  of  joint  worship. 
Conspicuous    virtues    are    varieties    of:    piety,    humility, 

loyalty,  fidelity,  faithfulness,  Christian  fellowship,  ceremo- 
nial observance,  submission,  etc.  Conspicuous  vices  are: 
infidelity,  hypocrisy,  disbelief,  heterodoxy,  insubordination, 
irreverence,  profanity,  idolatry,  etc. 

e.  Political  groups,  formed  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
by  concert  of  action  such  ends  as  common  security,  enforce- 
ment of  justice,  and  provision  of  public  utilities.  These 
groups  include:  villages,  municipalities,  states,  nations,  and 
confederations  organized  for  defense,  aggression,  adminis- 
tration of  justice,  and  provision  of  utilities  (coinage,  roads, 
education,  colonization,  trade) ;  and  political  parties  or  other 
voluntary  or  partisan  groupings  centering  about  promotion 
of  political  policies. 

The  conspicuous  civic  virtues  are  certain,  as  yet  imper- 
fectly defined,  varieties  of:  conformity  to  laws,  ordinances, 
conventions;  submission  to  duly  constituted  authority  in- 
cluding, in  democracies,  the  expressed  will  of  majorities; 
loyalty  to  approved  institutions  and  policies;  fearless  and 
active  participation  in  political  party  group  activities;  self- 
sacrifice  (in  the  common  defense  or  other  emergency);  and 
political  honesty. 

The  conspicuous  civic  (including  martial)  vices  are  certain 
varieties  of:  poltroonery,  disloyalty,  insubordination,  law- 
lessness, criminality,  dishonesty,  grafting,  self-centered 
individualism,  irresponsibility,  intolerance,  seditiousness, 
predatoriness,  etc. 

/.  Cultural  or  mutual  improvement  groups,  such  as  scien- 
tific associations,  clubs  for  promotion  of  intellectual  or 
aesthetic  ends,  etc. 

g.  Man's  relationship  to  animals  constitutes  a  special 
field  of  social  ethics.  Virtues  are  tolerance,  humaneness, 
etc. ;  the  vices,  cruelty,  brutality,  neglect,  etc. 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  97 

CONDITIONS    OF    SOCIAL    EDUCATION 

The  final  products  or  results  of  physical,  vocational,  and 
cultural  education  are  essentially  individual,  even  though 
many  of  their  later  consequences  are  necessarily  social.  A 
hermit  or  Robinson  Crusoe  could,  in  spite  of  his  isolation, 
exhibit  some  high  achievements  in  health  and  strength, 
vocational  proficiency,  and  cultural  interests. 

But  the  products  or  effects  of  social  education,  on  the 
other  hand,  must  be  measured  and  evaluated  from  the 
outset  by  standards  of  social  worth.  Social  worths  are  de- 
termined by  the  effective  functionings  of  social  groups. 
But  social  groups  ultimately  resolve  into  individual  per- 
sonalities through,  and  by  means  of  whom,  social  qualities 
are  developed  and  manifested.  Social  education,  building 
on  original  nature,  is  directed  toward  intensifying,  extending, 
modifying,  or  repressing  that  original  nature  toward  the  needs 
of  group  life  as  these  at  the  present  time  exhibit  themselves. 

Varieties  of  social  groups.  Certain  practical  considera- 
tions of  primary  importance  to  social  education  grow  out 
of  the  facts  that:  (a)  the  various  social  groups  in  which 
any  individual  has  voluntary  or  involuntary  membership 
vary  greatly  in  their  size,  complexity,  and  the  accessibility 
of  their  needs  and  processes  to  his  understanding;  (b)  the 
instinctive  leanings  or  pulls  toward  good  group  membership 
as  found  in  any  individual  vary  greatly  as  toward  different 
kinds  of  groups;  (c)  the  mechanisms  of  social  control  already 
developed  or  capable  of  being  developed  by  the  various 
groups  vary  widely  and  by  no  means  directly  as  the  useful- 
ness of  these  groups  to  the  ends  of  civilized  society;  and 
{d)  finally  the  social  qualities  of  individuals,  as  resulting 
from  instinct  and  early  nurture  (and  giving  appreciations 
of  "self-interest"  and  of  particular  or  small  group  interests) 
vary  greatly.  Hence  the  needs  of  carefully  organized  social 
education  vary  greatly  as  the  groups,  the  needs  of  which 


98  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

are  being  considered,  are  largely  natural  groups,  or  are  mod- 
ern products  of  the  conditions  of  civilization  —  that  is,  rela- 
tively artificial  groups. 

a.  For  such  relationships  as  mother  and  children,  husband 
and  wife,  playfellows,  small  and  local  sociability  groups, 
there  exist  ancient  instinctive  foundations  in  man's  "original 
nature."  Similar  instinctive  foundations  are  also  found  for 
the  relationships  (toleration,  mutual  aid,  subjection  to 
leadership,  etc.)  involved  in  more  or  less  sporadic  economic 
groups  —  productive  work,  partnership,  master  and  servant, 
and  also  simple  political  groups  —  committees,  mobs,  gangs, 
martial  bands.  Self-defense  and  predatory  instincts  often 
give  bases  for  very  strong  groups  among  primitive  peoples. 

b.  But  for  many  of  the  groups  and  group  relationships 
required  in  civilized  life,  instinctive  foundations  in  the 
individual  are  weak,  sometimes  antagonistic.  This  is  con- 
spicuously the  case  where  (a)  extensive  groups  must  be 
formed  —  cities,  states,  nations,  large  worshiping,  coopera- 
tive, and  cultural  groups,  etc. ;  (6)  where  unlike  human  beings 
must  be  brought  into  relations  of  tolerance  and  cooperation  — 
blacks  and  whites,  cultured  and  uncultured,  men  and  women, 
rich  and  poor,  etc.;  and  (c)  where  the  "goods"  resulting 
from  cooperation  are  uncertain  or  likely  to  go  to  certain 
parts  of  the  group  only  —  stockholders  and  unionized 
employees,  mercenary  soldiers,  distant  consumers,  skeptical 
worshipers,  etc. 

c.  Since  civic  groupings  are  those  for  which  there  exist 
fewest  instinctive  foundations;  in  which  the  visible  values 
are  hardest  to  discern  (except  in  time  of  danger  from  war) ; 
and  which  necessarily  enforce  or  at  least  need  participation 
of  most  heterogeneous  social  elements  —  therefore,  for  them 
there  is  required  the  maximum  of  positive  or  direct  education. 

d.  Under  conditions  of  civilization  nearly  all  forms  of 
group  life  become  more  complicated,   more  delicately  ad- 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  99 

justed,  more  liable  to  derangement.  Hence  the  growing 
need  for  specified  forms  of  social  education  that  shall  con- 
form to  the  conditions  imposed  by  decline  of  authoritarian 
control,  by  rise  of  effective  demands  for  democracy,  for 
freedom  of  thought,  etc.  This  need  seems  to  be  especially 
great  in  all  civic  groupings. 

SOME  PROBLEMS  IN  SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY 

Social  psychology  is  yet  deficient  in  analyses  of  the  motives 
and  directives  of  civic  action.  But  personal  experience  and 
observation  enable  us  to  use  for  practical  purposes  some 
popularly  understood  classifications  and  valuations. 

a.  Among  the  motive  forces  we  easily  recognize: 

(1)  Fear  —  of  punishment,  of  disapproval,  of  failure, 
of  death,  etc.  (endless  special  varieties  may  be 
traced). 

(2)  Love,  ambition,  desire,  sentiment  —  in  endless 
variety,  as  toward  self-realization,  aggrandize- 
ment, approval,  security,  gratification  of  senses, 
etc. 

(3)  Conscience,  sense  of  honor,  etc.,  perhaps  irradia- 
tions or  sublimations  of  more  primitive  qualities. 
All  of  these  have  foundations  in  instincts,  of 
course,  and  their  activity  has  strong  emotional 
or  pleasure-pain  accompaniments.  All  of  them 
tend  toward  certain  kinds  of  fixities  in  habits, 
attitudes,  appreciations,  ideals,  crystallized 
"character." 

b.  Among  the  directive  means  of  social  or  civic  action  in 
the  individual  we  can  recognize: 

(1)  Instincts,  impulses,  and  intuitions  —  social,  in- 
dividualistic, etc. 


100  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

(2)  Appreciations,  feeling  attitudes,  likes  and  dis- 
likes, prejudices,  tastes,  valuations,  preferences, 
desires,  etc. 

(3)  Habits,  non-emotional  attitudes,  inertias,  ob- 
sessions, etc.  (these  merge  with  (1)  and  (2)  but 
are  supposed  to  be  relatively  non-emotional 
except  when  frustrated). 

(4)  Knowledge,  intelligence,  insight,  understanding. 
(Note  that  motive  and  directive  qualities  con- 
stantly interact,  perhaps  blend,  in  practice. 
But  their  handling  for  educational  purposes 
probably  takes  different  methods.) 

(5)  Aspirations,  ideals,  and  the  like  in  their  dynamic 
aspects. 

c.  In  the  processes  by  which  the  adult  citizen  becomes 
what  he  is  in  motives,  habits,  understandings,  etc., 
there  has  been  a  great  deal  of  sifting,  growth,  and 
fixation  of  qualities.  The  final  products  give  us  the 
relatively  stable  composite  called  "character"  —  good 
or  bad.  Those  specific  qualities  of  character  that  can  be 
"counted  on"  in  action  we  can  best  call  virtues  and  vices. 
Note  the  terms  —  and  their  opposites  —  in  common 
use  to  describe  these :  alert,  inventive,  artistic,  rational, 
sincere,  thorough,  useful,  adaptable,  attentive,  cautious, 
cooperative,  decisive,  directive,  executive,  industrious, 
obedient,  persistent,  purposeful,  responsible,  teachable, 
thrifty,  conscientious,  independent,  magnanimous,  pru- 
dent, refined,  self -controlled,  self-respecting,  thoughtful, 
considerate,  congenial,  courteous,  faithful,  genuine, 
harmonious,  helpful,  honest,  honorable,  just,  law- 
abiding,  patient,  pure,  respectful,  regardful  of  rights 
of  others,  sociable,  tactful,  trustful,  truthful,  ambi- 
tious, appreciative,  hopeful,  courageous,  self-confident, 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  101 

determined,  earnest,  forgiving,  friendly,  '  generous, 
grateful,  humble,  humorous,  idealistic,  kindly,  loyal, 
poised,  progressive,  public-spirited,  reverent,  righteous, 
sportsmanlike,  sympathetic,  tolerant,  truth-seeking, 
etc.  (based  on  Milton  Fairchild's  Perfect  Human  Being). 

d.  There  is  greatly  needed  some  kind  of  rating  of  potency 
(either  generally  or  as  varied  among  individuals)  of 
various  motives,  as  found  native  or  as  modified  by 
social  control.  When  is  the  boy's  fear  of  his  playmates' 
displeasure  greater  than  his  fear  of  the  teacher's  wrath  ? 
Under  what  circumstances  will  a  man's  fear  of  death 
yield  to  his  fear  of  being  called  a  coward?  What  is 
meant  by  "Every  man  has  his  price"?  When  can  love 
of  an  admired  one's  approval  outweigh  self-interest? 
WTien  does  "knowing"  what  is  right  (or  what  is  ex- 
pected by  most  approved  authorities)  assure  right 
action?  Educational  proposals  seem  to  pass  lightly 
over  the  problems  implied  here. 

SOME   EDUCATIONAL    PRESUPPOSITIONS 

Most  well-informed  educators  now  agree  that  we  cannot 
extensively  derive  "general  powers"  of  observation,  reason- 
ing, imagination,  memory,  attention,  and  the  like,  from  hard 
and  persistent  training  in  specific  varieties  or  "species"  of 
these  powers.  The  same  principle  probably  applies  to  such 
qualities  as  "the  scientific  attitude,"  "the  religious  attitude," 
thrift,  industriousness,  etc.  Only  slowly  are  we  beginning 
to  see  that  it  doubtless  holds  no  less  true  regarding  the 
moral  and  civic  virtues  —  honesty,  truthfulness,  loyalty, 
fidelity,  patriotism,  altruism,  etc.  In  practice  each  one  of 
these  is  a  kind  of  "genus"  —  with  each  its  many  varieties 
or  species.  Each  person  has  developed  —  or  been  trained 
in  —  one  or  several  varieties.  If  these  varieties  have  common 
elements,  these  tend  to  fuse  or  blend  in  general  experience, 


102  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

appreciations,  ideals,  attitudes.  Possibly  relatively  general 
ideals  may  emerge  from  intense  particular  experiences  —  but 
the  psychology  of  this  is  obscure  and  dubious. 

Is  it  natural  or  usual  for  the  mind  or  spirit  to  generalize 
certain  residual  qualities  —  valuations,  appreciations,  ideals, 
attitudes,  tastes  —  from  a  few  specific  experiences?  Common 
experience  seems  to  answer  affirmatively,  as  it  formerly  did 
the  question  as  to  whether  "observation,"  "reasoning,"  and 
other  generalized  mental  powers  could  be  taught.  Moral 
and  civic  education  find  it  urgently  necessary  to  determine 
how  far  specific  training,  instruction,  or  idealization  in  or 
of  honesty,  truthfulness,  reverence,  civic  interest,  law  and 
order,  patriotic  sacrifice,  international  sympathy,  and  the 
like,  will  produce  general  qualities  as  a  dependable  part  of 
civic  and  moral  character. 

Moral  disciplines.  Social  psychologists  seem  to  be  substan- 
tially agreed  upon  these  principles : 

a.  That  as  respects  the  neural  basis  or  foundations  of 
moral  as  well  as  intellectual  qualities  —  and  including  there- 
under instincts  as  well  as  learning  plasticities  or  teachable- 
ness—  individuals  probably  differ  greatly,  as  they  do  in 
potentialities  for  size,  color  of  hair,  musical  abilities,  fear, 
and  other  "physical"  qualities.  Men  are  in  general  more 
combative  than  women;  women  seem  to  have  greater  sym- 
pathy for  helpless  children;  some  persons  have  much  keener 
social  sympathies  than  others;  whilst  similar  native  differ- 
ences, perhaps  very  great,  exist  as  regards  parental  affection, 
sociability,  gregariousness,  altruism  (toward  federates),  and 
other  distinctively  social  qualities. 

b.  That  when  specific  experience  produces  certain  atti- 
tudes in  particular  situations,  recognition  of  similar  elements 
in  new  situations  will  tend  to  revive  similar  attitudes.  For 
example,  a  child  made  afraid  by  a  dog  will  fear  other  animals 
behaving  like  or  resembling  dogs  as  long  as  contrary  experi- 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  103 

ence  is  not  strong.  A  man  made  reverential  in  the  believed 
presence  of  one  Deity  will  transfer  attitude  to  a  situation 
involving  a  spirit  related  to  that  Deity. 

c.  That  for  the  highly  rational  man  it  is  possible,  on  the 
basis  of  limited  experience,  to  reason  more  or  less  deductively 
from  isolated  experiences  to  general  application.  "Ridicule 
hurts  me,  and  I  easily  learn  that  it  hurts  my  friendly  asso- 
ciates; by  inference,  it  hurts  my  enemies,  distant  people, 
perhaps  certain  animals."  Now  if  the  man's  motives  not 
to  hurt  have  somehow  become  general,  then  action  will 
follow  combined  motive  and  understanding,  unless  counter- 
vailing pressures  exist. 

d.  That  where  a  strong  motive  already  exists  —  due  to 
natural  qualities  plus  experience  in  a  very  general  range  of 
activities  —  then  intellectual  identification  of  a  particular 
possible  act  as  coming  within  that  range  will,  except  for 
countervailing  pulls,  insure  performance  in  line  with  the 
motive.  A  child  is  very  anxious  to  please  his  mother;  an 
authority  tells  him  that  a  certain  form  of  behavior  will  do 
so;  his  action  follows.  A  "club"  man  is  very  anxious  to 
avoid  the  ill-opinion  of  his  club  associates;  some  one  who 
"knows"  says  of  a  certain  possible  course  of  action,  "It  is  not 
done,  you  know."  A  man  instinctively  fears  physical  injury; 
therefore  he  avoids  action  that  is  alleged  to  promise  it.  A 
man  cherishes  a  reputation  for  business  honesty;  he  will 
eschew  conduct,  otherwise  promising,  which  might  interfere 
with  this  reputation.  Self-analysis  will  show  that  each  one 
of  us  holds  scores  or  hundreds  of  these  guiding  motives  — 
rooted  in  ideals,  appreciations,  ideas. 

e.  That  the  moral  and  civic  struggles,  mistakes,  and 
tragedies  of  life  arise  chiefly  from  these  sources : 

(1)  We  have  not  the  right  motives  in  consciousness. 

(2)  We  have  right  and  wrong  motives  in  consciousness, 
but  in  acting  the  wrong  are  stronger  than  the  right. 


104  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

(3)  We  have  right  motives  of  adequate  strength,  but  we 
are  ignorant  of  right  courses  of  action. 

/.  That  social  disharmonies  result  largely  from  the  fact 
that  average  persons  are  prone : 

(1)  To  serve  their  individual  interests  or  desires  before 
those  of  their  kin  and  fellows. 

(2)  To  serve  the  interests  of  their  kin  —  in  family  groups 
■ — before  those  of  their  associates  and  federates  (subject 
to  the  exception  that  when  one  is  breaking  away  from  the 
filial  group  and  has  not  welded  himself  strongly  in  marital 
and  parental  groups  he  goes  through  a  period  when  some 
instinctive  associate  group  —  gang,  club,  band  —  may  hold 
him  more  strongly  than  his  family  group). 

(3)  To  serve  the  interests  of  associates  before  those  of 
federates. 

The  foregoing  may  be  called  defects  due  to  "excess  of 
natural  tendency.'' 

g.  That  at  times  social  disharmonies  result  from  inversion 
of  natural  tendencies.  These  may  be  called  "excesses  of 
virtue." 

(1)  A  man  sacrifices  himself  to  others. 

(2)  A  man  neglects  his  family  for  associate  or  federate 
groups. 

(3)  He  serves  spiritual  beings  to  the  neglect  of  humans. 

(4)  He  devotes  himself  excessively  to  an  abstract  ideal  — 
justice,  art,  science,  exploration,  invention. 

Conclusions.   In   the   absence   of   dependable   knowledge* 
regarding   "transfer"    (more  accurately,   "general  spread" 
from  particular  experiences,  habits,  ideals,  etc.)   of  moral 
and  civic  qualities  —  powers  or  appreciations  —  the  follow- 
ing questions  are  raised: 

a.  Why  should  we  not  devote  our  educational  resources 
and  efforts  to  producing  good  moral  and  civic  conduct  or 
behavior  on  the  part  of  the  individual  toward  the  groups 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  105 

in  which  he  now  has  membership  —  school  work  groups, 
play  groups,  community  groups,  family  groups,  common- 
wealth federate  groups?  The  virtues  here  —  of  conformity 
and  initiative  —  are  easily  analyzed  and  many  examples  of 
successful  devices  are  available. 

b.  Why  should  we  not,  in  the  second  place,  seek  to  produce 
those  specific  virtues  which,  while  not  especially  germane 
to  youthful  life,  nevertheless  manifestly  function  in  adult 
life?  Specific  types  of  courtesy  to  women,  of  property 
honesty,  of  respect  for  parks,  of  conserving  the  cleanliness 
of  streets,  of  preservation  of  game,  of  relief  of  poverty,  of 
observing  the  Sabbath,  etc.,  come  under  this  head. 

OTHER  VARIETIES   OF   SOCIAL   EDUCATION 

The  foregoing  would  be  sought  as  virtues  in  action  —  i.e., 
as  complexes  of  instinct,  appreciation,  habit,  attitude,  ideal. 
The  test  of  the  efficacy  of  the  teaching  would  at  any  time 
be  conduct.  No  mystical  assumptions  as  to  "spread"  need 
be  entertained.  But  certain  supplemental  lines  of  social 
education  are  also  possible : 

a.  Under  teaching  guidance  young  learners  could  be  led 
to  comprehend  and  —  in  degrees  practicable  to  non-partici- 
pants—  to  evaluate  (criticize)  social  conduct  in  real  or 
imaginary  group  situations  in  which  they  do  not  now  have 
membership.  For  this,  "present  company  excepted"  is  an 
essential  attitude.  Youths  thus  may  scrutinize,  come  to 
understand,  and.  in  a  measure  morally  evaluate  behavior  in 
other  schools,  among  other  peoples,  among  contemporary 
adult  groups,  etc.  Will  pupils  "take"  results  here  that  will 
affect  their  own  conduct  when  later  ages  or  changed  condi- 
tions bring  them  into  "grip"  with  the  inducements  and 
other  conditions  of  the  groups  criticized  adversely  or  ad- 
mired? Possibly,  but  expectations  should  not  be  too 
sanguine. 


106  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

b.  Under  teaching  guidance  learners  may  readily  be  in- 
duced to  respond  in  appreciations  and  ideals  to  particular 
social  situations  where  factors  of  feeling  are  large.  The 
Marseillaise  arouses  patriotic  fervor,  Black  Beauty  evokes 
love  of  horses,  The  Song  of  the  Shirt  begets  aspirations  for 
the  oppressed.  Note  large  use  of  drama,  painting,  fiction, 
poetry,  moving  pictures,  ceremonial,  pageantry,  for  these 
purposes.  What  have  been  the  social  functions  of  Art  here? 
Note  also  how  oratory,  sermon,  religious  observance  serve 
same  ends.  None  question  that  when  related  conduct  is 
possible  soon  after  emotional  appeal,  effects  are  strong. 
But  will  results  "keep"  long,  if  action  (behavior,  conduct, 
expression,  performance)  is  not  at  once  called  for?  This  is 
doubtful.  Excessive  reliance  on  the  method  is  of  dubious 
worth  at  present. 

c.  Under  teaching  guidance  moral  or  civic  problems  (as 
these  perplex  adults)  may  be  studied,  elucidated  on  the  part 
of  youths.  If  these  are  still  problems  when  youth  is  con- 
fronted by  needs  for  action,  knowledge  may  carry  over. 
(But  note  that  when  these  are  controversial,  teachers  may 
be  estopped  by  partisan  zeal  from  extensive  analytical  treat- 
ment of  them,  especially  if  harm  or  good  to  vested  interests 
and  cherished  prepossessions  might  result.) 

d.  Information  about  structure  and  functions  of  govern- 
mental and  other  social  agencies  and  institutions  can  be 
taught  as  knowledge,  as  one  can  teach  facts  of  history, 
principles  of  physics,  etc.    But: 

(1)  Such  teaching  is  formal  where  no  active  motive  for 
learning  exists. 

(2)  Its  usefulness  is  often  not  clear. 

(3)  Should  such  stored  and  organized  knowledge  be 
regarded  as  one  regards  the  dictionary,  railroad  time  tables, 
collections  of  statutes,  gazetteers,  encyclopedias,  etc.  —  to 
be  available  and  organized  for  ready  use  when  needed? 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  107 

social  groupings:  some  problems  summarized 
Experience  clearly  shows  great  variabilities  in:  (a)  the 
sizes  of  the  social  groups  in  which  man  has  membership; 
(6)  the  efficacy  of  instinctive  pulls  to  good  membership; 
(c)  the  efficacy  of  self-interest  appeals;  (d)  the  coercive  efficiency 
of  machinery  of  social  control;  (e)  the  need  of  systematized 
educational  adjustment. 

Examples:  (a)  The  instincts,  customs,  etc.,  of  family  con- 
trol usually  insure  good  group  membership  on  the  part  of 
children  from  birth  to  ten  years  of  age.  School  or  other 
supplemental  agencies  are  little  needed.  (6)  Harmony  of 
husband  and  wife  is  furthered  as  a  result  of  religious  and 
social  education,  with  laws  and  penalties  for  cases  of  extreme 
disharmony,  (c)  Within  ordinary  conjugal  family  group 
(for  example,  2  adults,  4  children)  specific  virtues  of  tolera- 
tion, cooperation,  truthfulness,  continence,  property  honesty, 
etc.,  are  usually  assured,  (d)  Within  village  community, 
conformist  virtues  are  largely  assured  by  public  opinion, 
Mrs.  Grundy,  church,  and  school;  but  youngsters  often 
break  conventions.  Virtues  of  initiative  are  not  assured, 
resulting  in  weak  cooperation  except  where  self-interest  is 
manifestly  served.  (Consider  thesis:  "In  preenlightenment 
stages  of  social  evolution  the  village  is  the  chief  nursery 
of  the  true  civic  —  i.e.,  beyond  kinship  —  virtues;  but  under 
enlightenment,  the  village  is  too  small  and  diversified  to 
give  foundations  for  constituent  societies  and  larger  co- 
operations.") (e)  Within  national  or  other  state  groups 
conformist  virtues  are  secured  by  law,  cool  justice,  influence 
of  voluntary  leaders.  Cooperation  is  secured  with  difficulty 
except  in  the  tangible  stress  of  war  dangers.  Here  is  the 
central  area  of  the  true  civic  virtues. 

Classifications  of  virtues.  The  following  classifications  of 
virtues  will  prove  profitable  in  subsequent  studies:  (a)  In- 
dividual  virtues,   those   that   make   the   individual    strong, 


108  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

successful,  happy,  for  himself.  (6)  Kinship  virtues,  those 
that  insure  solidarity,  success,  mutual  aid,  mutual  pleasing 
within  family  and  allied  kinship  groups,  (c)  Neighborhood 
associate  civic  virtues,  those  that  give  effectiveness  to  group 
relationship  within  component  group,  embracing  chiefly 
those  who  come  into  personal  contact  with  each  other  — 
usually  10  to  500  persons.  (Elsewhere  included  as  "associate 
civic"  virtues.)  (d)  Commonwealth  or  federate  civic  virtues,, 
those  giving  civic  effectiveness  in  large  municipality,  state, 
or  nation,  where  men  reach  each  other  at  second  hand 
through    leaders,    legislation,    printed    matter,    books,    etc. 

Consideration  must  later  be  given  to  the  suggestion  that 
focal  area  of  school  social  education,  ages  4-9,  should  bfe 
kinship  groups  and  school  community  groups;  for  ages  9-12, 
neighborhood  community  groups;  and  for  ages  12-18  the 
commonwealth  groups. 

Problems.  In  terms  of  fundamental  social  values  under 
normal  conditions  is  it  essential  to  social  soundness  that: 

(a)  an  individual  should  give  first  consideration  to  being 
a  well-developed,  strongly  functioning  individual  personality; 

(b)  that  next  in  order  of  importance  is  good  family  member- 
ship; (c)  that  third  in  order  is  good  local  community  mem- 
bership; and  (d)  that  last  in  order  is  good  commonwealth 
membership?  Would  or  should  this  order  be  readjusted  (a) 
in  time  of  national  danger?  (6)  in  time  of  civil  war?  (c)  in 
time  of  famine? 

How  should  this  order  be  considered  in  special  reference 
to:  girls,  aged  5  to  12;  men,  aged  20-25;  women,  aged  30-40 
of  less  than  average  abilities;  men,  of  super-average  ability 
and  hereditary  advantages,  aged  30-60;  recent  immigrants 
of  low  ability  and  precarious  economic  conditions? 

Is  it  reasonable  to  assume  that,  in  view  of  the  efficacy 
of  non-school  agencies,  the  responsibilities  and  work  of 
schools  in  social  education  will  be  tenfold  greater  in  pro- 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  109 

dueing  the  commonwealth  civic  virtues  than  in  producing 
the  local  community  civic  virtues?  And  proportionately 
greater  in  producing  the  local  community  virtues  than  the 
kinship  virtues? 

Is  it  reasonable  to  assume  that  security  and  social  prog- 
ress are  multiplying  demands  on  commonwealth  virtues, 
only  moderately  increasing  demands  on  local  community 
virtues,  and  perhaps  diminishing  demands  for  kinship 
virtues? 

From  studies  of  these  problems  could  we  derive  formula- 
tions of  reasonable  or  optimum  social  expectancies  as  to 
possession  of  social  virtues? 

Proposed  studies.  To  what  extent  will  forms  of  social 
analysis  and  evaluations  like  those  suggested  below  prove 
helpful  in  planning  social  education? 

Case  Group  DR.  Young  white  men,  ages  20-24,  of  aver- 
age abilities,  inclined  to  manual  vocations,  unmarried,  but 
keenly  interested  in  opposite  sex,  foreign-born  ancestry, 
resident  in  small  city,  of  elementary  school  education,  no 
inherited  wealth.  (Presuppose  normal  conditions  of  peace, 
and  include  functioning  ideals  and  practicable  desires  as 
well  as  practice.)  Reasonable  optimum  social  expectations 
rated  on  basis  of  10,000  positive  units. 

a.  Individual  virtues,  4000  units  (include  health,  voca- 
tion, personal  culture,  and  sumptuary  or  "consumers'  ' 
standards) . 

b.  Kinship  virtues,  2000  units  (include  support  of  parents, 
cooperation  with  brothers  and  sisters,  proper  sex  relations 
with  women,  and  active  ideals  toward  forming  own  family). 

c.  Neighborhood  or  associate  civic  virtues,  3000  units 
(include  geographic  community,  vocational  group,  relations 
to  employers,  culture  and  sociability  groups,  local  political 
party  and  religious  groups,  local  voting,  etc.,  and  include 
sex  relations  in  so  far  as  these  affect  rights  of  others). 


110  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

d.  Federate  civic  virtues,  1000  units  (include  patriotism, 
contributions  to  representative  government,  state  and 
national  politics,  participation  in  federations  of  political 
party,  religious,  vocational,  cultural,  and  sociability  groups, 
as  well  as  overflow  of  these  in  international  relations) . 

What  different "  expectation  ratings  "  should  be  provided  for : 

Case  Group  DX.  College-educated  business  men,  35-60 
years  old,  with  some  inherited  wealth,  American  ancestry, 
resident  in  city  of  25,000  population. 

What  expectation  ratings  would  you  give  Case  Group  DR 
in  time  of  great  danger  from  external  war? 

What  expectation  rating  would  you  give  Case  Group  DX 
men  in  time  of  war? 

Suggested  analyses.  Society  holds  certain  crude  expecta- 
tions of  its  members  as  to  economic  productiveness  and 
conservation.   For  example,  is  it  normal  that: 

a.  A  child  of  six  on  a  farm  should  have  no  stored  wealth 
(capital)  and  may  easily  consume  tenfold  what  he  produces? 

b.  A  single  man  aged  22  of  good  health,  high  school 
education,  and  family  environment,  having  discontinued 
educational  preparation  since  18,  should  have  stored  wealth 
measured  at  several  hundred  dollars,  relatively  high  (high 
school  graduate  standard  of  living)  sumptuary  practices,  and 
a  productive  capacity  50  per  cent  greater  than  consuming 
practice? 

c.  That  a  man  of  40  of  moderate  education,  poor  health, 
and  inferior  vocational  capacity  who  has  elected  to  build 
a  family  should  have  $500  worth  of  stored  wealth,  low  or 
very  economical  consuming  practices,  and  productive  powers 
three  times  as  great  as  his  own  individual  needs  of  con- 
sumption? 

Variable  potentialities.  Should  society  hold  expectations 
similarly  varied  as  regards  good  citizenship?  Analyze  from 
standpoint  of   (a)   conformist   and    (b)   dynamic  virtues  in 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  111 

(1)  kinship,  (2)  neighborhood,  and  (3)  federate  groups,  opti- 
mum (or  reasonable)  expectations  from: 

a.  Boys  aged  six  in  good  families  on  small  hill  farms; 

b.  Women  elementary  school  teachers  in  cities,  ages  45-60; 

c.  Negro  illiterate  workers  in  soft  coal  mines; 

d.  Well-educated  married  women  in  prosperous  suburban 
families; 

e.  Young  men,  unmarried,  operative  laborers,  sons  of 
recent  Hungarian  immigrants,  with  whose  language  and 
customs  they  are  rapidly  losing  sympathy? 

SOCIAL   EVALUATIONS 

The  "worth"  of  a  man  in  terms  of  all  or  of  some  of  his 
qualities  is  to  be  estimated  from  any  one  of  several  stand- 
points. Every  man,  of  course,  values  his  qualities  in  terms 
of  the  satisfactions  they  give  himself.  His  health  may 
give  him  a  net  balance  of  pain;  his  vocation  a  large  amount 
of  pleasure;  his  convivial  associations  a  large  net  satisfaction; 
and  the  like. 

The  valuation  of  qualities  from  external  sources  arises 
from  social  relationships.  A  man's  vocational  industry  may 
give  much  value  to  his  family,  while  his  moral  behavior 
may  give  much  pain.  His  manners  may  give  his  associates 
a  net  amount  of  dissatisfaction,  whilst  his  aggressiveness 
toward  invaders  may  give  large  positive  values  in  public 
security. 

Social  criticisms.  Wherever  and  whenever  social  groups 
are  formed,  social  valuations  of  individual  members  are 
incessantly  being  made.  The  courage  of  this  man  is  fair, 
good,  excellent,  or  "marvelous";  of  that  man,  poor,  con- 
temptible, or  infamous.  The  business  rectitude  of  Brown  is 
high,  that  of  Jones,  low.  Patrick  is  a  good  mixer,  a  fine 
fellow;  Sandy  a  dour  and  close  curmudgeon.  Ferguson 
minds  his  own  business,  Sullivan  is  a  "buttinsky." 


112  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

"The  Grundys,"  public  opinion,  the  press,  and  especially 
"persons  of  influence,"  and  finally  quasi-judicial  agencies, 
soon  produce  "party,"  if  not  social,  judgments.  The  "re- 
spectable" people  of  the  neighborhood,  or  possibly  the 
neighborhood  as  a  whole,  look  upon  the  various  Smiths  as 
"shady,"  vagrant,  thieving,  immoral,  or  else  as  upright, 
thrifty,  or  "patterns  of  moral  character."  The  police  classify 
certain  men  as  to  criminal  character;  commercial  agencies 
rate  the  credit  of  business  concerns;  and  statutes  are  enacted 
discriminating  the  kinds  of  securities  insurance  companies 
may  invest  in. 

Social  valuations  made  from  the  vantage  ground  of  any 
one  kind  of  group  naturally  rank  qualities  heavily  in  terms 
of  that  group's  interests.  A  young  man's  dress  and  manners 
are  very  important  to  his  convivial  associates,  but  of  less 
relative  importance  to  his  employers  unless  these  happen  to 
need  his  services  in  making  certain  kinds  of  business  con- 
tacts where  personal  presentableness  avails  much.  A  man 
of  forty  with  his  composite  character  is  very  differently 
valued  respectively  by  his  family,  his  club,  his  political 
party,  his  church,  and  his  nation  in  time  of  stress. 

We  not  only  constantly  thus  "value"  individuals;  we  also 
value  groups  of  individuals,  from  cliques  and  sets  to  nations. 
The  members  of  a  certain  family  are  all  loose  and  mean, 
or  the  reverse;  all  the  pupils  in  a  certain  school  are  given 
to  cheating;  the  men  of  a  certain  geographic  region  are  all 
prevailingly  shiftless;  the  Adams  and  the  Walsh  families 
give  prevailingly  high-grade  citizens;  the  business  morality 
of  Japanese  is  lower  (some  allege)  than  that  of  Chinese; 
the  Irish  are  more  superstitious  than  the  Norwegians; 
Southern  Italy  yields  fewer  good  citizens  than  the  Valley 
of  the  Po;  negroes  are  less  moral  than  whites. 

Biased  valuations.  These  valuations  also  reflect  heavily, 
of  course,   the  interests   and   prepossessions  of   the  group 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  113 

making  them.  Confederates  think  of  Federals  as  white- 
livered  shopkeepers,  whilst  from  the  other  side  Confederates 
are  looked  upon  as  firebrands  and  slave  drivers.  Puritans 
are  kill-joys  to  the  theater-going  crowd,  whilst  the  opinion 
held  by  Puritans  of  actors  and  their  associates  passes  easy 
description.  Where  material,  moral,  or  political  interests 
clash,  valuations  formed  on  either  side  are  so  heavily  colored 
by  feeling  as  to  be  largely  unserviceable  for  sociological 
purposes. 

These  sweeping  judgments  are  of  course  uncritical  and 
often  prejudiced.  They  are  frequently  formed,  as  Booker 
Washington  once  mildly  complained,  "by  comparing  the 
worst  negro  with  the  best  wThite  man."  But  they  often 
reflect  substantial  realities;  and  we  cannot  escape  the  fact 
that  to  a  very  large  extent  they  do  govern  social  action  —  in 
reality,  they  are  as  yet  often  the  only  available  means  of 
guiding  social  action. 

CRUDE   SOCIAL   VALUATIONS 

Crude  social  valuations  of  the  kind  here  illustrated  have 
largely  motivated  the  numerous  attempts  at  civic  education 
(as  well  as  all  other  forms)  heretofore  developed.  Illiterate 
voters  are  "bad  or  dangerous  voters."  Men  who  know 
nothing  of  the  history  of  their  country  can  hardly  be  ex- 
pected to  vote  as  true  patriots.  "  Unamericanized "  immi- 
grants are  certain  to  be  undesirable  citizens.  Pupils  who 
have  learned  no  obedience  to  rules  of  law  and  order  in  schools 
will  care  little  for  the  corresponding  rules  outside  of  schools. 
Men  who,  as  children,  learned  nothing  of  self-government  in 
schools  will  hardly  understand  its  meaning  in  later  years. 
Democracy  is  chronically  short  of  the  right  kinds  of  leaders; 
hence  we  must  publicly  support  high  schools  and  state 
universities  in  order  to  provide  sound  political  leadership. 
Music  should  be  fostered  in  the  public  schools  as  a  valuable 


114  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

means  of  socialization.  The  foundation  of  good  citizenship 
can  be  laid  in  the  kindergarten.  Teaching  prospective  voters 
to  read  is  not  in  itself  any  guarantee  of  good  civic  behavior; 
somehow  we  must  teach  them  what  to  read. 

To  this  effect  are  numberless  current  tendencies  to  rank 
or  grade  either  qualities  expected  or  means  of  producing 
them.  At  best  these  rankings  are  indicated  by  terms  of  ethi- 
cal derivation,  and  are  always  heavily  affected  by  the  sub- 
jective  prepossessions  of  those  making  them.  But  these 
processes  are  not  to  be  disparaged,  except  when  better  are 
demonstrably  available.  The  social  progress  of  the  world 
to  date  has  been  achieved  largely  through  just  such  crude 
refining  of  social  judgments  as  lies  back  of  recent  American 
efforts  to  provide  educationally  for  "better  citizenship." 

Scientific  evaluations.  If  civic  education  is  to  be  made 
more  purposive  and  more  efficient,  it  is  necessary  that  proc- 
esses of  social  valuation  should  become  more  exact.  If 
objectives  of  civic  education  are  to  be  derived  chiefly  from 
studies  of  the  acceptable  and  unacceptable  qualities  now 
exhibited  by  adult  citizens,  we  must  find  effective  means  of 
distinguishing  and  evaluating  these  qualities  as  now  found 
not  only  in  individuals  but  especially  in  definable  groups 
of  individuals. 

In  describing  simple  qualities  a  few  gradings  could  well 
be  used;  and  these  would  have  much  value  if  they  merged 
the  valuations  of  several  competent  judges.  They  would 
have  still  more  value  if  the  judgments  thus  combined  came 
from  sources  representing  different  social  backgrounds. 

Thus  three  judges  representing  respectively  the  points  of 
view  of  the  police  judge,  the  social  worker,  and  the  estab- 
lished business  man  could  pass  upon  the  "civic  worth"  of 
illiterate  male  negroes  or  recent  Jewish  immigrants  or  native 
American  casual  workers  or  high  school  teachers,  all  from 
30  to  40  years  of  age.    Given  sufficient  acquaintance  with 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  115 

the  individuals  judged,  this  small  jury  would  probably, 
without  much  difficulty,  agree  in  grading  the  individuals 
concerned  into  such  classes  as  "excellent,"  "superior," 
"inferior,"  and  "bad."  Perhaps  they  could  still  more  readily 
do  this  if,  instead  of  being  asked  to  grade  them  in  terms 
of  the  highly  composite  quality  "good  citizenship,"  they 
were  required  to  consider  relatively  various  concrete  quali- 
ties, such  as  "business  probity,"  attention  to  voting,  kind 
of  political  reading  habitually  done,  volunteer  efforts  in 
social  reform,  and  the  like. 

RELATIVE   STANDARDS 

But  very  soon  the  problem  of  relative  standards  would 
arise.  Should  all  these  citizens  be  measured  by  the  same 
yardstick?  When  we  say  the  handwriting  of  a  seven-year- 
old  child  is  "good,"  does  the  term  denote  the  same  kind 
and  degree  of  excellence  that  would  be  similarly  defined  in 
the  handwriting  of  a  bookkeeper?  The  courage,  staying 
powers,  "punch,"  and  pugilistic  skills  of  a  bantam  fighter 
are  graded  by  standards  for  "men  of  his  class";  and  in 
several  important  respects  these  will  differ  from  the  standards 
developed  for  heavyweights.  From  the  standpoint  of  the 
expectations  of  society  for  civic  conformity  and  civic- 
initiative  surely  "college  men  in  business,"  recent  immigrant 
Russians,  Western  "owning"  farmers,  and  migrating  negro 
wage  earners  are  in  different  classes.  Perhaps  in  some 
ultimate  scheme  of  social  evaluation  all  the  qualities  of  all 
members  of  society  should  be  measured  in  some  fundamental 
unit,  as  we  now  measure  various  forms  of  energy  in  the 
physical  world;  but  for  present  purposes  such  an  expectation 
is  Utopian.  We  can  only  hope  to  refine  upon  and  render 
more  objective  the  standards,  measures,  and  methods  of 
social  valuation  now  universally,  even  if  roughly  and  par- 
tisanly,  applied. 


116  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

Another  difficulty  is  very  soon  encountered  when  we  seek 
to  evaluate,  not  composites  or  resultants  of  civic  qualities, 
but  specific  component  qualities.  We  can  readily  rate  these 
specific  qualities ;  but  how  shall  we  value  them  in  comparison 
with  each  other? 

Suppose  we  are  trying  to  "evaluate"  the  health  of  two 
men.  The  first  is  excellent  in  all  respects  except  instep 
arches,  which  are  graded  "bad";  the  second  is  excellent  in 
all  respects  except  for  serious  tubercular  infection  which 
causes  him  to  be  rated  "bad"  as  to  respiration  or  lungs 
or  whatever  is  the  "species"  agreed  upon.  Obviously  these 
two  "bads"  are  not  of  equal  seriousness.  Somehow  they 
must  be  weighted. 

Similarly  two  negro  laborers  might  be  graded  as  respects 
a  variety  of  social  qualities  —  property  honesty,  interest  in 
good  voting,  thrift,  general  sociability,  etc.  A  is  rated 
excellent  in  all  qualities  except  the  first,  where  the  fact  that 
he  steals  on  all  convenient  occasions  causes  him  to  be  rated 
"bad."  B  is  rated  excellent  in  all  qualities  except  participa- 
tion in  voting,  in  which  he  is  bad.  Obviously  these  two  vices 
are  not  equal  as  social  liabilities  —  they  also  must  be  weighted 
by  means  not  as  yet  well  established. 

Several  initial  stages  in  the  processes  of  social  valuation, 
first  of  individuals  and  then  of  groups  of  individuals,  are 
now  sufficiently  established  to  be  capable  of  profitable 
application.   These  stages  include: 

a.  The  selection  of  social  groups  that  are  reasonably 
homogeneous  as  respects  the  more  prominent  qualities  that 
differentiate  humans  in  objective  society. 

b.  Analysis  by  experts  of  the  qualities  (in  as  concrete 
terms  as  practicable)  that  make  up  the  composites  finally 
to  be  evaluated  as  sources  of  educational  objectives  for  this 
group,  or  for  today's  youth  who  are  potential  members  of 
similar  groups  ten  to  forty  years  hence. 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  117 

c.  Weighting  of  these  qualities  for  the  group  under  con- 
sideration. 

d.  Evaluation  of  individuals  in  rating. 

e.  Assembly  of  individual  ratings  to  obtain  group  ratings. 
The  process  of  deriving  educational  objectives  from  these 

valuations  would  entail  additional  problems.  Let  us  assume 
that  the  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  determine  objectives 
of  civic  education  in  schools  for  the  oncoming  generation. 
Our  analysis  reveals  "prevailing  defects"  among  adults. 
Some  of  these  and  some  only  would  have  been  remediable 
by  school  education.  Which?  What  can  be  done  wdth  or 
through  other  agencies?  concurrently  with  school  life? 
subsequent  thereto? 

WEIGHTING    OF   CIVIC    QUALITIES 

The  more  exact  evaluation  of  civic  worth  requires  first 
a  classification  of  civic  qualities  (for  the  present  the  terms 
"virtue"  and  "vice"  will  be  freely  employed  to  designate 
approved  and  disapproved  qualities  respectively).  Since 
every  specific  variety  of  human  action  is  the  resultant  of 
a  variety  of  influences,  it  is  not  practicable  to  devise  cate- 
gories that  shall  be  entirely  mutually  exclusive.  A  man's 
health  at  times  affects  his  moral  behavior,  his  vocational 
powers,  and  his  cultural  interest.  Under  other  circumstances 
any  one  of  these  may  affect  his  health. 

Nevertheless  practical  distinctions  as  made  in  everyday 
life  are  largely  valid.  A  man's  property  honesty,  patriotism 
in  war-time,  conservation  of  his  own  health,  and  interest 
in  specified  forms  of  culture  are  commonly  viewed  as  rela- 
tively independent  qualities.  Doubtless  they  all  derive  from 
a  common  source  or  soil  of  inheritance,  just  as  do  so  many 
organic  compounds  made  up  almost  wholly  of  the  four 
common  elements,  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen. 
But  from  the  standpoint  of  educational  effort,  once  the  con- 


118  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

ditions  imposed  by  "original  nature"  have  been  accepted, 
each  of  these  qualities  can  be  made  the  objective  of  training 
or  other  modifying  effort. 

The  groupings  of  qualities  found  in  men  and  women 
elsewhere  proposed  (pages  85-93)  as  a  basis  for  analysis  of 
educational  objectives  can  serve  as  a  starting  point  here  — 
namely,  the  physical,  vocational,  social,  and  cultural.  These 
are  capable  of  much  subdivision. 

Contrasted  social  groups.  For  illustrative  purposes  let  us 
assume  that  the  civic  worth  of  two  somewhat  contrasted 
groups  of  adults  is  to  be  estimated  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  local  or  neighborhood  community.  The  two  groups 
selected  will  be  men  high  school  teachers,  ages  30-50,  and 
negro  manual  workers  (in  a  Northern  city)  of  the  same 
ages.  The  total  worth  of  each  individual  to  the  community 
will  be  rated  on  the  basis  of  10,000  plus  or  positive  points 
for  his  virtues  and  10,000  minus  or  negative  points 
for  his  vices.  The  high  standards  of  positive  worth  for  each 
group  will  be  those  which  neighborhood  judgment  commonly 
implies  by  such  words  as  excellent,  first  class,  A  grade,  best, 
or  100  per  cent.  Similarly  the  low  standards  of  negative 
worth  are  expressed  in  social  judgments  as  to  "lowest  grade," 
vicious,  criminal,  vagrant,  "a  'thoroughly  bad  example," 
depraved,  and  the  like. 

The  zero  point  of  a  virtue  or  a  vice  need  not  now  concern 
us.  We  are  simply  trying  to  find  provisional  ratings  for  the 
purpose  of  somewhat  refining  everyday  neighborhood  judg- 
ments. We  readily  recognize  the  significance  of  the  words 
a  "first-class  negro  street  sweeper"  (in  terms  of  vocational 
performance) .  Other  workers  in  these  groups  we  can  grade  or 
relate  to  these  standards  down  to  a  point  at  which  they  would 
be  found  to  be  doing  more  harm  than  good  by  their  alleged 
service,  after  which  we  could  rate  them  by  negative  points. 

A  high  school  teacher,  scrupulously  observing  the  laws 


MEANING  OF  SOCIAL  EDUCATION  119 

of  property,  paying  his  debts  to  the  full  and  the  like,  would 
rate  up  to  excellent  in  this  general  virtue.  But  if  he  steals, 
fails  to  pay  his  debts,  and  in  general  flouts  social  needs 
for  property  honesty,  he  would  be  rated  as  of  less  than 
no  positive  worth  —  he  would  be  a  source  of  harm.  For 
the  present  we  may  expect  endless  difficulties  to  arise  from 
the  tendency  to  confuse  low  positive  ratings  with  negative 
ratings.  It  is,  of  course,  evident  that  the  "points"  here 
used  have  no  absolute  values.  Neither  have  the  points  used 
for  different  groups  as  now  assigned  any  comparative  values. 
And  finally  it  must  be  evident  that  negative  and  positive 
points  have  no  relative  values  to  each  other.  These  points 
only  serve  conveniently  to  indicate  relative  importance  of 
the  positive  or  negative  qualities  of  one  group  to  the  others. 
Standards.  Since  we  are  here  concerned  primarily  with 
problems  of  social  education,  we  need  not  dwell  upon  methods 
of  allocating  "points"  to  other  than  social  qualities.  Let 
us  assume  that  from  the  standpoint  of  the  community  the 
relative  importance,  for  both  case  groups  under  consid- 
eration, of  the  physical,  vocational,  cultural,  and  social 
qualities  are  indicated  by  the  allotment  of  a  total  of 
10,000  points  for  the  positive  and  for  the  negative  qualities 
respectively  distributed  as  follows:  physical,  1000  positive, 
1000  negative;  social,  5000  positive  and  5000  negative; 
vocational,  3000  positive,  3000  negative;  and  cultural,  1000 
positive,  1000  negative.  In  other  words  in  an  all-round 
first-class  citizen  (of  optimum  efficiency)  from  either  group 
the  relative  importance,  as  measured,  of  course,  in  terms 
of  social  (or  community)  expectancy,  of  excellent  health, 
excellent  vocational  ability,  excellent  culture,  and  excellent 
social  behavior  would  be  in  the  ratios  indicated;  whilst 
similarly  the  low  depths  of  all-round  badness  (pessimum 
efficiency)  would  be  similarly  weighted  as  among  the  four 
types  of  qualities. 


no 


CIVIC  EDUCATION 


The  next  step  is  to  form  working  classifications  of  social 
qualities.  The  first  ready  division  is  into  the  moral,  the 
religious,  and  the  civic  qualities  (as  defined  on  pages  94-96) . 
But  a  further  analysis  can  profitably  be  made.  The  moral 
qualities  chiefly  affect  men's  "small  group"  relationships;  but 
of  these  the  family  relationship  possesses  an  importance  in 
most  communities  equal  to  all  others  together.  Hence  our  first 
division  is  into  family  morals  and  "other  small  group"  morals. 

Civic  behavior  readily  reveals  such  divisions  as:  general 
observance  of  laws  (civic  conformity);  upholding  of  civic 
ideals  in  all  kinds  of  social  intercourse;  political  party  activ- 
ity and  voting;  participation  in  reform  or  civic  reconstruc- 
tion activities,  apart  from  political  party  service;  giving  of 
uncompensated  political  service;  and  national  patriotism  in 
its  nonconformity  aspects. 

The  following,  then,  is  submitted  as  a  provisional  allotment 
of  points  (optimum  and  pessimum  standards) : 


Proposed    Analysis   and    Weighting;    Standards 
Case  Groups  M  and  N 

FOR 

Case  Group  M  (Men 
High  School  Teachers) 

Case  Group  N  (Negro 
Manual  Laborers) 

Virtues 

Vices 

Virtues 

Vices 

Family  morals 

Other  small  group  morals 

Religion 

Observance  of  laws  .    .    . 
Promotion  of  civic  ideals 
Political  activity  .... 

Reform  work 

Volunteer  service      .    .    . 
Patriotism 

800 
500 
500 
200 
1000 
500 
500 
500 
500 

1000 

1000 

500 

1000 

1000 

100 

100 

200 

100 

1500 
1500 
300 
1000 
100 
200 
100 
100 
200 

1000 
1500 
500 
1500 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

The  next  step  would  be  to  provide,  through  a  jury  of 
competent  judges  with  somewhat  unlike  subjective  standards, 
for  the  "rating"  of  individuals  from  each  of  these  groups. 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 

Society's  Need  of  Civic  Education 

SOCIAL   CONTROL 

"Social  control"  is  found  by  sociologists  to  have  been 
a  universal  social  process  in  human  societies  from  their 
beginnings.  Since  men  can  only  exist  by  and  through  some 
or  many  forms  of  group  life;  and  since  inherited  instincts 
give  in  the  main  only  vaguely  shaped,  even  though  powerful, 
impulses  toward  social  action,  it  follows  that  those  most 
vitally  interested  in  all  social  groups  shall  in  numberless 
ways  shape  and  hold  the  young,  the  individualistic,  and  the 
short-sighted,  steadily  toward  right  types  of  conformity  and 
service  to  the  group.  This  is  just  as  true  of  a  boys'  gang 
as  of  the  state;  of  a  club  as  of  a  business  corporation;  of 
a  social  party  as  of  an  army. 

The  nation,  the  municipality,  and  the  neighborhood  of 
associates,  as  inclusive  social  groups,  have  always  presented 
great '  difficulties  of  social  control  because  of  the  unlike 
qualities  of  the  members.  These  groups  necessarily  include 
men  and  women,  adults  and  children,  the  ignorant  and  the 
learned,  the  prosperous  and  the  poor,  the  selfish  and  the  gener- 
ous. The  industrious,  peaceful,  and  law-abiding  members  must 
ncessantly  be  protected  or  protect  themselves  from  the  idle, 
the  predatory,  the  lawless.  But  to  make  the  village  per- 
manently healthy,  the  municipality  generally  prosperous, 
and  the  nation  able  to  defend  itself,  it  is  also  necessary 
to  prevent  idleness,  useless  contentiousness,  and  lawlessness. 

The  means  of  social  control  adapted  for  these  purposes 
have  been  all  but  numberless.  On  the  one  hand  they  include 
the  coercions  of  custom,  of  religion,  and  of  law.  On  the 
other  are  found  the  endlessly  varied  forms  of  appeal  to  good 
nature,  intelligence,  and  desire  for  approval,  all  of  which  are 

121 


122  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

essentially  educative.  Just  as  medicine  tends  to  become 
preventive  rather  than  curative,  so  social  control  in  nearly 
all  kinds  of  groups,  and  especially  in  those  having  political 
functions,  tends  to  become  educative  (or  "attractive"  in 
the  earlier  etymological  sense  of  the  term,  as  used  by  Lester 
F.  Ward)  rather  than  coercive. 

There  are  many  reasons  why  modern  political  groups  need 
greatly  improved  and  extended  civic  education  of  their 
members.  These  reasons  fall  mainly  into  four  groups:  (a) 
Modern  political  groups  are  becoming  vastlv  more  complex 
and  intricate  on  the  economic  side.  (6)  We  are  demanding 
more  of  security,  health,  wealth,  and  the  other  means  of 
happiness  from  our  political  groupings  than  ever  before. 
(c)  These  groups  are  increasingly  dynamic,  changing,  evolv- 
ing, instead  of  static,  (d)  Under  the  ideals  of  democracy 
individuals  and  "small  group"  members  are  even  more 
insistent  in  claiming  the  maximum  of  "self-realization" 
and  self-determination. 

Human  beings  are  probably  not  now  born  into  the  world 
with  greatly  different  or  better  social  instincts  and  other 
qualities  of  "original  nature"  than  were  those  of  our  savage 
ancestors  of  ten  or  fifty  thousand  years  ago.  Hence  to  make 
of  these  infants  social  men  and  women  suited  to  the  needs 
of  complex  civilization  requires  from  the  cradle  to  manhood 
and  in  some  respects  even  to  the  grave,  education  of  many 
specific  kinds,  as  well  as  other  more  external  means  of  con- 
trol, such  as  laws,  parties,  and  governments. 

DEVELOPMENTAL   CIVIC   EDUCATION 

Developmental  education  has  in  the  evolution  of  the  race 
been  accomplished  largely  through  extra-school  agencies  — 
especially  the  home,  community  group,  shop,  and  church. 
A  large  part  of  this  education  has  always  resulted  in  the 
moral  appreciations,  habits,  and  ideals  essential  to  group 


SOCIETY'S  NEED  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION         123 

harmony  and  solidarity.  A  portion  of  it  might  properly 
be  called  civic,  especially  in  periods  when  war  threatened 
or  nation-building  was  in  process. 

Conquest  and  subjugation  of  peoples  led  several  thousand 
years  ago  to  the  establishment,  in  the  more  habitable  parts 
of  the  world,  of  governing  classes  or  aristocracies.  Direct 
civic  education  adapted  to  the  prospective  needs  of  rulers, 
leaders,  and  dispensers  of  justice  naturally  appeared.  On 
the  opposite  side,  the  civic  virtues  of  subordination,  sub- 
mission, and  service  were  taught  to  the  conquered,  rarely 
in  schools,  but  much  through  other  agencies. 

The  evolution  of  republican  government,  built  upon 
aspirations  for  democracy,  general  suffrage,  and  constitu- 
tionalism, has  quite  generally  been  accompanied  by  the 
promotion  of  public  education.  In  large  part  this  has  been 
designed  for  civic  ends.  Literacy  is  conceived  as  the  first 
essential;  then  history,  with  adjuncts  of  biography,  patriotic 
song,  and  perhaps  geography.  Finally  appear  the  beginnings 
of  civics  as  a  separate  study. 

What  is  now  the  need  of  more  direct  civic  education  in 
the  United  States  than  has  heretofore  been  provided  through 
the  schools?  For  the  present  we  answer  this  question  largely 
on  the  basis  of  faiths  and  beliefs,  and  generally  as  partisans 
of  a  few,  rather  than  of  many  kinds  of,  educational  objec- 
tives. Our  contemporary  educational  philosophy,  built  so 
extensively  out  of  aspirations,,  gives  little  place  to  the  serious 
treatment  of  relative  educational  values.  Looking  upon  that 
vague  composite,  called  education,  as  a  social  "good,"  it 
is  easy  to  say  "we  cannot  have  too  much  education." 

The  partisans  of  special  types  of  education  are  also  prone 
to  say  "we  cannot  have  too  much  of  health  education,  or 
vocational,  or  musical,  or  linguistic,  or  historical"  education, 
according  to  the  color  of  their  respective  prepossessions. 
Under  present  conditions  educational  aims  may  be  said  to 


124  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

be  in  constant  competition,  and  the  "fittest"  survives  — 
which  often  means  the  best  advertised,  or  the  very  fashion- 
able, or  the  most  vigorously  promoted. 

Relative  values.  Fundamentally,  of  course,  all  questions 
of  educational  needs  and  values  bring  us  to  problems  of 
relative  needs  and  relative  values.  All  education  must  be 
achieved  under  limiting  conditions.  Time  is  the  most  ob- 
vious of  these.  At  the  most  it  is  only  possible  to  claim  from 
one  thousand  to  two  thousand  hours  of  the  child's  time  per 
year  for  from  eight  to  fifteen  years  for  school  purposes. 
The  educability  of  the  child  is  another  limiting  factor.  This 
is  an  extremely  variable  quantity,  but  even  the  most  able 
or  brilliant  learner  eventually  reaches  his  limits.  A  third 
limitation  is  found  in  the  resources  wherewith  parents  and 
the  state  may  support  and  produce  education.  Education 
can  be  achieved  only  through  teachers  working  with  such 
instrumentalities  as  subjects  of  study,  texts,  laboratories, 
and  the  like.  Teachers  are  human  instruments  and  their 
mechanical  aids  are  never  perfect.  Their  work  must  be 
paid  for  from  the  products  of  other  labor  —  itself  subject 
to  limitations. 

There  was  a  time,  perhaps,  when  the  scope  and  variety 
of  the  offerings  possible  in  schools  were  small  because  few 
"subjects  "  were  well  enough  organized  for  school  pur- 
poses. But  that  time  has  now  gone  by  at  all  school 
levels.  Even  in  the  lowest  grades  many  more  objectives, 
all  of  demonstrable  worth,  can  be  set  than  it  is  possible 
to  achieve  within  the  limits  of  existing  abilities,  time,  and 
pedagogic  resources. 

Hence  the  central  problem  in  all  studies  of  educational 
need  today  is  not,  "Is  this  thing  needed?"  —  of  any  par- 
ticular objective  in  hygiene,  language,  science,  art,  vocation, 
or  culture;  but,  "Is  it  more  needed  than  something  else, 
the  time  and  learning  energy  for  which  it  would  preempt?" 


SOCIETY'S  NEED  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION         125 

NEEDS    FOR   CIVIC    EDUCATION 

The  conventional  arguments  in  support  of  more  and 
better  civic  education  in  our  public  schools  can  thus  be 
again  summarized: 

a.  Even  under  favorable  conditions,  and  in  compara- 
tively simple  societies,  the  individual  receives  only  a  very 
imperfect  civic  education  from  extra-school  agencies.  This 
is  evidenced  by  the  numbers  of  bad  and  incompetent  citizens 
found  in  all  primitive  societies,  and  the  never  ending  failures 
of  these  societies  to  organize,  support,  or  stabilize  good 
government  and  other  forms  of  social  control. 

b.  Even  when  this  developmental  civic  education  is  sup- 
plemented by  "a  common  school  education,"  thus  assuring 
quite  general  literacy  and  some  appreciation  of  history  and 
social  geography,  results  are  still  far  from  satisfactory,  as 
every  modern  state  with  a  well-developed  public  school 
system  testifies. 

c.  But  the  problems  of  finding  and  maintaining  effective 
forms  of  governmental  as  well  as  of  other  "large  group" 
mechanisms  grow  daily  more  complex.  The  functions  of 
government,  once  largely  restricted  to  defense,  the  conserva- 
tion of  internal  order,  and  the  administration  of  justice, 
now  visibly  multiply.  The  scope  and  intricacy  of  public 
policies  increase  in  every  direction.  States  enlarge,  economic 
interdependence  of  widely  separated  geographic  relationships 
assumes  vital  importance.  Extension  of  suffrage  has  resulted 
in  wide  distributions  of  responsibilities  for  initiating,  testing, 
and  applying  political  policies,  as  well  as  for  the  selection 
of  legislative  and  executive  agents  to  carry  them  into  practice. 

d.  The  functions  of  public  education  have  heretofore  been 
excessively  individualistic,  rather  than  social.  Schools  have 
been  designed  chiefly  to  aid  individuals  to  succeed  in  life 
rather  than  to  help  the  state  and  other  large  social  groupings 
to  succeed.    It  becomes  now  the  obligation  of  society  to 


126  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

extend  and  improve  the  social  objectives  of  public  education, 
of  which  civic  education  toward  political  competency  is 
among  the  most  important.  The  social  science  studies,  as 
well  as  other  means  to  this  end,  should  therefore  receive 
greatly  increased  emphasis. 

e.  The  materials  for  civic  education  are  now  better  organ- 
ized and  more  available  than  ever  before.  Even  history 
studies  which,  as  heretofore  taught,  have  probably  func- 
tioned in  civic  ideals  or  enlightenment  only  to  a  slight 
extent  (except  possibly  in  the  case  of  a  few  vigorous  and 
aspiring  minds)  are  now  in  process  of  fundamental  pedagogic 
reorganization  on  a  basis  more  calculated  to  give  valuable 
results  in  civic  education.  Economics,  heretofore  an  abstract 
and  difficult  body  of  knowledge,  is  being  gradually  given  con- 
crete and  simple  forms  suited  at  least  to  secondary  schools. 
Civil  government,  once  essentially  a  study  of  political 
anatomy,  is  also  being  developed  into  applied  and  case  forms 
of  much  concreteness  and  simplicity.  It  seems  not  improbable 
that  other  social  sciences,  including  sociology  itself,  will  soon 
be  presented  in  forms  suitable  for  use  in  school  curricula, 

/.  A  constantly  increasing  proportion  of  American  chil- 
dren attend  school  between  the  years  of  12  and  18  —  the 
years  of  transition  from  childhood  to  adult  estate,  which 
are  peculiarly  suited  to  the  establishment  of  civic  apprecia- 
tions and  ideals,  the  fixing  of  at  least  some  important  civic 
habits  and  attitudes,  and  the  communication  of  some  salient 
facts  of  civic  knowledge  and  enlightenment. 

g.  Finally,  the  number  of  students  of  college  social  sciences 
who  could  easily  qualify  to  teach  these  subjects  in  schools 
increases  constantly. 

CONTEMPORARY   ESTIMATES   OF   NEEDS 

The  aspirations  and  proposals  thus  summarized  are  found 
scattered  voluminously  throughout  the  contemporary  litera- 


SOCIETY'S  NEED  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION         127 

ture  of  education.  Unfortunately  they  are  nearly  all  charac- 
terized either  by  vagueness  or  by  unscientific  derivation.  The 
philosophical  proposals  are  couched  in  very  general  terms. 
The  programs,  courses,  texts,  and  pedagogic  instrumentali- 
ties are  apt  to  be  opportunist,  faddish,  or  too  severely  logical 
for  successful  presentation  under  American  school  conditions. 

Account  must  be  taken  of  the  many  serious  defects  in 
prevailing  methods  of  estimating  contemporary  needs  of 
civic  education.  Chief  in  importance  probably  is  the  failure 
to  allow,  in  a  sociological  sense,  for  the  educative  effects 
of  non-school  agencies  on  persons  of  favoring  heredity  and 
good  environment. 

It  is  a  commonplace  that  among  the  colonial  settlers 
of  America  were  many  very  good  citizens.  The  circumstances 
preceding  and  following  the  American  Revolution  brought 
to  the  front  many  excellent  citizens,  some  of  whom  were 
giants  in  their  day.  A  large  proportion  of  the  men  who 
gave  their  efforts,  and  in  many  cases  their  lives,  to  save 
the  Union  more  than  half  a  century  ago  were  certainly 
good  citizens. 

We .  of ten__allude  to  jarmers  as  being  the  backbone  of 
Amprjpan  citizenry.  Well-led  and  patriotic  groups  of  home- 
conducting  women,  of  artisans,  of  business  men,  of  racial 
or  immigrant  representatives  everywhere  attest  to  the  vital 
potentialities  in  American  life  of  making  out  of  some  children 
good  citizens,  quite  without  purposive  civic  education  in 
schools.  In  spite  of  our  misgivings,  we  found  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  men  and  women  called  upon  for  service 
in  the  Great  War  were  sound  not  only  in  body,  but  in  patri- 
otic citizenry  as  well. 

The  sociological  fact  is,  of  course,  that  in  any  group  of 
adults,  differentiated  on  any  other  than  purely  moral  and 
civic  grounds,  there  will  be  found  some  exceptionally  good, 
some  very  bad,  and  many  average  citizens.    No  class  or 


128  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

other  social  group  has  now  a  monopoly  either  of  civic  virtue 
or  of  civic  vice,  nor  will  it  have  after  we  shall  have  de- 
veloped a  thoroughgoing  program  of  civic  education  through 
the  schools.  Some  very  good  citizens,  made  such  by  their 
environment  and  a  favoring  heredity,  will  be  found  among 
"owning  farmers,"  village  handymen,  domestic  servants, 
men  high  school  teachers,  unskilled  negro  laborers,  women 
very  wealthy  by  inheritance,  frontiersmen,  recently  immi- 
grated Norwegians,  bank  presidents,  half-nomadic  tenant 
farmers,  college  professors,  and  ministers.  Bad  citizens,  too, 
will  be  found  in  all  these  groups. 

THE  USE  OF  THE  CASE  GROUP  STUDY  OF  NEEDS 

The  social  efficiency  of  a  people  in  its  political  activities 
is  largely  determined  not  by  the  fact  that  bad  citizens  are 
found  in  all  its  component  groups,  but  by  their  proportions 
in  various  groups,  and  especially  in  those  of  greatest  civic 
influence.  If  large  proportions  of  our  ministers,  owning 
farmers,  merchants,  college-educated  men,  women  of  good 
family  extraction,  skilled  artisans,  school  teachers,  and  well- 
educated  negroes  were  venal,  anarchistic,  or  insurrectionary 
in  their  citizenship,  then  would  our  social  state  be  bad 
indeed.  We  can  stand  a  few  anarchists  among  recent  immi- 
grants or  migratory  manual  laborers,  and  some  grafters 
in  our  political  slums,  so  long  as  the  more  vital  parts  of 
our  social  body  are  strong  and  healthy  enough  to  resist 
infection. 

Hence,  as  stated  elsewhere,  the  first  step  in  the  scientific 
study  of  the  need  of  better  civic  education  requires  that 
we  should  evaluate  citizenship  as  we  now  have  it.  The 
superficial  man,  of  course,  forms  judgments  on  individual 
instances.  Because  a  half-crazed  vagrant  assassinates  Presi- 
dent McKinley,  the  public  schools  are  denounced.  Because 
an  occasional  immigrant  acts  the  anarchist,    all  immigrants 


SOCIETY'S  NEED  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION         129 

are  blackened  as  citizens.  Some  negroes  (often  with  more 
white  than  black  blood)  sell  their  votes  or  support  corrupt 
leaders,  and  all  negroes  are  condemned  therefor. 

We  shall  not  be  on  sound  ground  here  until  we  apply 
statistical  methods  to  our  problems  of  civic  need.  The 
method  will  not  prove  simple,  although  at  every  stage  now 
we  should  practice  in  making  estimates,  if  we  can  school 
ourselves  to  hold  them  always  as  tentative.  For  example, 
there  are  over  25,000  men  teachers  in  the  high  schools  of 
the  United  States.  As  a  class  or  group  what  kind  of  citizens 
are  they?  Do  they  stand  high  in  the  conformist  virtues  of 
respectability,  compliance  with  laws,  good  example?  Do 
they  rank  low  in  the  virtues  of  civic  initiative?  Even  in 
their  conformist  virtues  do  they  rank  as  high  as  society 
has  a  right  to  expect  from  persons  of  their  fortunate  heredity, 
educative  environment,  and  social  position? 

Set  against  these  the  numerous  young  women  from  18  to 
25  years  of  age  found  in  some  Eastern  manufacturing  city. 
Wherein  do  they  show  "prevailing"  civic  virtues  £  What 
proportion  probably  "sell"  their  votes?  What  proportion 
vote  on  the  wrong  side  of  important  public  questions? 
What  proportion  break  laws  established  for  the  protection 
of  property,  the  family,  public  order?  What  are  reasonable 
standards  which  society  should  expect  them  tq_j*each  in 
virtues  of  ciyjc_jnitiaiive?  What  proportion  fail  to  reach 
these  standards? 

Other  social  groupings  should  be  similarly  studied.  It 
may  prove  most  convenient  at  first  to  take  these  on  a  voca- 
tional basis,  since  vocational  preferences  or  compulsions  are 
often  determined  by  factors  of  intelligence,  family  rearing, 
general  education,  race,  recency  of  immigration,  and  habitat. 
But  we  must  not  differentiate  on  economic  lines  too  ex- 
clusively. We  must  sooner  or  later  answer,  with  some  par- 
ticularization,    such    questions    as   these:     (a)    Are   women 


130  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

prevailingly  worse  or  better  citizens  than  men  of  the  same 
education  J  as  respects  what  civic  qualities?  (b)  Are  negroes 
in  the  Northern  states  better  or  worse  citizens  than  whites 
of  the  same  ability,  education,  and  economic  opportunity? 
(c)  Do  Italians  or  Hungarians  give  the  larger  proportion 
of  "good"  conforming  immigrant  citizens  under  similar 
environing  conditions?  (d)  Are  urban  or  rural  dwellers  the 
better  citizens  at  similar  economic  and  educational  levels? 
(e)  Do  men  of  high  native  intelligence  make  proportionately 
better  citizens  than  the  poorly  endowed  2  (J)  How  do  men 
of  strictly  orthodox  religious  faiths  compare  with  agnos- 
tics of  the  same  intelligence  and  environmental  levels  as 
regards  qualities  of  civic  conformity?  civic  initiative  I 

AVOIDING   EXCESSIVE   ABSTRACTNESS 

In  view  of  the  diversities  here  suggested,  it  would  seem  to 
be  an  excess  of  simplification  and  abstractness  to  generalize 
about  "the  citizen."  As  well  generalize  about  "the  religious 
man"  without  reference  to  creed  or  denomination,  "the 
immigrant"  without  reference  to  antecedent  conditions,  or 
the  "gainfully  employed"  with  no  further  indication  of  status 
or  productivity.  Citizenship,  in  the  practical  sociological 
sense,  is  to  be  measured  finally  by  standards  of  specific 
performance;  and  that  must  vary  greatly  according  to  age, 
sex,  ability,  educative  environment,  vocational  pursuit,  and 
many  other  factors.  The  needs  of  civic  education,  as  well 
as  effective  contributions  to  it,  and  especially  those  "residual" 
needs  toward  which  contributions  are  possible  from  schools, 
can  be  expected  to  vary  hardly  less. 

There  is  a  second  very  conspicuous  weakness  in  current 
discussions  of  the  need  of  civic  education.  It  appears  when- 
ever the  abstract  terms  "the  child"  and  "the  pupil"  are 
used.  It  carries  unavoidably  the  assumption  that  all  chil- 
dren are  of  equal  "educability,"  if  the  word  may  be  per- 


SOCIETY'S  NEED  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION         131 

mitted.  Here  the  only  road  to  sane  evaluations  is  something 
resembling  the  "case  group"  method  of  approach.  A  few 
further  examples  will  serve  as  illustrations. 

A.  In  any  urban  elementary  school  can  be  found  sub- 
stantial proportions  of  boys  of  whom  the  following  facts 
are  true  enough  for  all  practical  purposes  of  providing  school 
curricula:  They  are  over  12  years  of  age;  they  are  from 
one  to  four  grades  retarded;  their  inherent  intelligence  is 
below  average;  they  are  well  developed  physically;  their 
home  environment  is  crude;  they  show  little  interest  or 
ability  in  the  more  abstract  studies;  they  are  very  social 
among  themselves,  inclining  toward  "clan"  standards  of 
loyalty  and  community  sentiments;  they  have  real  interests 
in  manual  work  and  team  sports;  the  ambitions  of  them- 
selves and  their  parents  point  not  at  all  toward  professional 
or  even  commercial  careers;  they  may  be  expected  to  become 
manual  workers,  leaving  school  as  soon  as  the  law  permits. 
As  adults  most  of  these  boys  will  be  fair  "conforming" 
citizens;  but  they  will  develop  few  initiatory  civic  virtues; 
and  they  will  frankly  disclaim  ability  to  comprehend  the 
intricate  questions  so  frequently  arising  for  civic  considera- 
tion and  decision. 

B.  Contrast  with  these  a  somewhat  smaller  proportion 
of  girls  found  in  the  same  elementary  schools;  they  are 
from  10  to  14  years  of  age  and  are  all  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades;  they  are  intellectually  keen  and  ambitious; 
they  come  from  favoring  home  environments,  and  will 
almost  certainly  finish  high  school,  if  not  college  or  pro- 
fessional school;  they  are  especially  able  in  abstract 
studies,  and  somewhat  disdainful  of  manual  work;  they  and 
their  parents  are  very  sensitive  to  public  opinion,  unwilling 
to  give  excuse  for  criticism,  and  almost  ultra-conformist 
in  their  morality.  Lofty  civic  ideals  can  easily  be  communi- 
cated to  these  girls,  though  their  civic  performance  in  adult 


132  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

years  will  often  show  less  initiative  than  might  be  expected. 
From  the  standpoint  of  their  respective  possibilities  of 
civic  education  these  two  case  groups  are  manifestly  no 
less  unlike  than  will  be  their  respective  contributions  toward 
civic  life  in  their  adult  years.  To  the  first  group  much  of 
the  material  contained  in  our  textbooks  of  civics  must 
remain  largely  "Greek."  As  adults  they  will,  indeed,  develop 
their  own  sources  and  standards  of  civic  action  no  less  than 
the  other  group,  but  on  what  a  very  different  basis!  In 
face  of  these  potential  differences,  how  naive  and  fruitless 
seem  many  of  our  generalizations  as  to  what  should  be  done 
with  and  for  "the  pupil,"  "the  child!" 

THE   DIRECTION   OF   SPECIALIST   SERVICE 

What  are  the  respective  responsibilities  of  the  leadership 
of  expert  service  and  of  followership  in  the  conduct  of  the 
state  and  other  "large  group"  social  organizations?  Failure 
adequately  to  analyze  the  elements  of  this  problem  is  the 
third  conspicuous  defect  in  current  aspirational  discussions 
of  the  need  of  civic  education. 

In  the  non-political  affairs  of  life  men  take  action,  in 
all  those  complicated  situations  toward  which  they  are  not 
themselves  specialists,  only  under  the  guidance  of  specialists. 
Few  of  us  are  well  qualified  as  physicians,  bookkeepers, 
watch  repairers,  preachers,  teachers,  or  printers.  Our  needed 
work  in  these  and  scores  of  other  fields  we  "hire"  done 
for  us.  The  optimum  measure  of  education  for  us  in  these 
fields  probably  consists  in  making  us  able  to  appreciate 
and  discover  the  right Jcind  of  service  or  service  products. 

In  certain  areas  of  political  service  the  same  principle 
is  now  consciously  applied.  The  citizens  of  well-governed 
cities  employ,  directly  or  indirectly,  expert  or  specialist 
service  to  provide  their  water,  keep  their  public  service 
accounts,  police  tb^ir  streets,  teach  in  their  schools,  advise 


SOCIETY'S  NEED  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION         133 

them  in  legal  difficulties,  control  their  epidemics,  and  manage 
their  public  hospitals.  The  citizens  of  the  nation  similarly 
have  specialists  to  direct  their  defense,  develop  public  irriga- 
tion systems,  transact  international  business,  administer 
justice,  coin  money,  and  conduct  the  mail  service. 

But  policies  of  municipal,  provincial,  or  national  action 
must  be  passed  upon  by  all  citizens  alike.  Theoretically, 
each  man  is  expected  to  be  a  qualified  judge  in  problems 
of  tariffs,  treaties,  issue  of  money,  forest  conservation, 
public  land  disposal,  military  service,  mail  carriage,  street 
formation,  treatment  of  delinquents,  and  public  education. 
Practically  we  know,  of  course,  that  comparatively  few 
citizens  have  ability,  information,  or  time  adequately  to 
consider  intricate  questions  of  public  policy.  Practically 
they  are  usually  guided  by  the  opinions  of  others  whom 
in  one  sense  or  another  they  regard  as  leaders  —  editors, 
party  spokesmen,  economists,  or  neighbors. 

Education  for  utilization.  Thus  we  come  to  the  problem 
of  the  citizen  as  "utilizer"  of  expert  service.  It  is  obvious 
that  herein  lie  some  of  the  most  complex  situations  affecting 
civic  education,  especially  as  that  aims  to  promote  the  virtues 
of  civic  initiative.  In  certain  respects  comparable  problems 
are  found  in  medicine.  Each  adult  should  be  educated  to 
live  hygienically^  but  also,  under  many  conditions,  to  submit 
to  expert  service.  No  man  can  successfully  decide  for  himself 
for  what  specific  purposes  he  needs  a  dentist,  oculist,  surgeon, 
or  general  diagnostician.  But  he  must  usually  himself 
decide  when  he  shall  seek  expert  service  and  to  whom  he 
will  go.  Are^  we  as  yet  successfully  educating  our  youth 
toward  the^  adequate  performance  of  these  last  functions? 

In  the  fields  of  political  and  related  activities  analogous 
forms  of  education  must  eventually  be  developed.  The 
large  majority  of  citizens  can  no  more  be  trained  to  assemble 
data  and  to  derive  sound  conclusions  with  reference  to  the 


134  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

complicated  economic,  fiscal,  justiciary,  educational,  sump- 
tuary, and  other  social  problems  now  increasingly  falling 
within  the  purview  of  government,  than  they  can  be  trained 
to  provide  their  own  dental,  ocular,  and  surgical  service 
or  to  diagnose  obscure  diseases.  Somehow  citizens  must  be 
so  educated  in  civic  matters  that  they  will  know  when 
and  where  to  rely  upon  conclusions  reached  by  themselves, 
and  under  what  circumstances  to  seek  the  guidance  of 
experts.  Of  special  importance,  of  course,  is  any  education 
in  appreciation  and  knowledge  that  will  qualify  them  to  select 
and  use  the  right  experts.  The  following  are  sample  problems : 

a.  It  is  known  in  the  state  of  New  York  that  a  large 
sum  of  money  will  be  asked  from  the  next  legislature  for 
the  forestation  of  a  hilly  tract  of  state  land  in  a  mountainous 
part  of  the  state.  An  enabling  amendment  to  the  state 
constitution  is  to  be  voted  upon  at  a  general  election.  A 
number  of  farmers  in  the  Mohawk  Valley  want  guidance 
as  to  how  to  vote.  They  know  little  about  problems  or 
results  of  artificial  forestation,  and  they  know  the  state 
is  now  burdened  by  taxation.  To  whom  shall  they  go  for 
information?  State  officials?  The  National  Department  of 
Agriculture?  Certain  college  professors?  Editors?  Public 
school  men?  Hunters?  Lumbermen  and  paper  company 
experts? 

b.  A  strong  effort  is  being  made  to  impose  high  protective 
tariffs  on  dyestuffs.  These  were  almost  exclusively  made 
in  Germany  before  the  war,  but  many  factories  were  de- 
veloped in  the  United  States  during  the  war.  A  group  of 
citizens  wish  to  use  the  influence  of  their  ballots  and  opinion 
in  promoting  policies  which  shall  be  good  for  America  and 
fair  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  By  whose  advice  shall  they 
be  guided?  Editors?  Technical  experts  in  chemistry? 
Chemical  manufacturers?  Textile  manufacturers  in  America? 
College  professors  of  economics?   Whom  else? 


CHAPTER  EIGHT 

The  Objectives  of  Civic  Education 

METHODS   OF   DETERMINATION 

Before  effective  programs  of  civic  education  can  be 
devised  for  given  age  levels  and  school  conditions,  it  is 
indispensable  that  we  have  clearly  defined  specific  objec- 
tives, so  differentiated  that  it  will  prove  easy  to  discover 
experimentally  at  what  age  levels  and  by  what  methods 
they  can  best  be  realized.  As  indicated  elsewhere,  these 
objectives  can  best  be  derived  from  concrete  studies  of  the 
observed  performances  of  social  case  groups  in  governmental 
or  other  forms  of  collective  action. 

For  the  purpose  of  setting  the  problems  of  objective 
clearly  before  us  let  us  assume:  (a)  that  in  all  of  the  normal 
adult  social  groups  that  will  first  be  studied  the  majority 
of  members  are  at  least  fairly  good  citizens;  (b)  that  through- 
out all  groups  will  be  found  some  common  civic  defects 
(hereafter  called  shortages  of  civic  virtue)  characteristic  of 
nearly  all  the  members;  and  (c)  that  in  each  group  will 
be  found  shortages  somewhat  peculiar  to  that  group. 

Civic  shortages.  How  shall  these  shortages  be  measured 
or  even  accurately  described?  It  must  be  remembered  that 
sociology  has  as  yet  devised  few  tests  or  measures  of  relative 
social  values.  Nevertheless,  as  indicated  in  an  earlier  chapter, 
it  is  certain  that  men  have  always  followed  the  practice  of 
rating  their  fellows,  individually  and  collectively,  as  to  their 
practice  of  civic  and  other  virtues.  We  speak  of  men  as 
good  or  bad  citizens,  as  patriotic  or  the  reverse,  as  devoted 
or  niggardly  in  public  service.  The  terms  "grafter," 
"slacker,"  "bribe-taker,"  "profiteer,"  "anarchist,"  and 
scores  of  others  signifying  social  opprobrium  are  applied 
to  individuals;  whilst  the  excessive  prevalence  of  such  indi- 

135 


136  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

viduals  in  a  group  gives  rise  to  such  phrases  as  "a  politically 
corrupt  city,"  "the  prevalence  of  law-breaking,"  "political 
indifferentism,"  "degraded  citizenry,"  "bureaucratic  rule," 
and  numberless  others. 

In  the  absence  of  other  means  it  is  practicable  to  refine 
upon  and  reduce  to  scientific  procedure  many  of  these 
characterizations.  For  purposes  of  this  chapter  we  may 
employ  the  crude  process,  previously  discussed,  of  consoli- 
dating the  evaluations  of  several  judges  representing  different 
fields  of  experience.  Assume  five  men,  one  a  professor  of 
political  science,  one  a  state  legislator  of  long  experience, 
one  a  Superior  Court  judge,  one  an  artisan,  and  one  a 
merchant,  asked  to  study  the  practices  of  citizenship  found 
in  certain  designated  groups. 

In  trying  to  determine  the  prevalent  civic  "shortages" 
of  various  groups  these  men  might  use  as  standards  of 
comparison  (a)  past  practices  in  similar  groups,  (6)  con- 
temporary practices  in  comparable  groups,  or  (c)  demon- 
strably practicable  ideals  or  standards  now  held  by  the 
well  informed. 

For  example,  take  venality  in  voting  among  small  farmers.. 
In  a  given  situation  in  State  X,  is  venality  more  common 
there  than  it  is  among  similar  people  in  State  Y?  Is  it 
demonstrable  that  such  venality  is  far  more  excessive  than 
it  would  be  if  suitable  special  civic  education  and  super- 
vision were  provided?  Similar  comparisons  could  be  insti- 
tuted as  to:  war-time  "slacking";  corruption  in  public  work; 
inefficient  legislation;  support  of  education;  prevalence  of 
needed  forms  of  cooperation;  and  scores  of  other  more  or 
less  prevalent  civic  shortages. 

• 

DETERMINATION   OF   " CIVIC    SHORTAGES" 

Only  provisional  inferences  can  now  be  made  as  to  the 
prevailing  shortages  upon  which  the  jury  would  agree  at 


OBJECTIVES  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION  137 

this  time.    We  can,  however,  readily  imagine  their  report 
taking  this  form : 

a.  Among  the  citizens  of  all  the  groups  studied  there  is 
found  less  of  some  specific  forms  of  political  idealism  than 
is  found  in  certain  other  republics  (e.g.,  Switzerland).  It 
is  practically  certain  that  such  forms  of  idealism  could  be 
produced  by  civic  education  under  aims  and  methods  now 
clearly  defined.  These  forms  of  idealism  include,  specifically, 
those  relating  respectively  to  (1)  the  help  of  lay  citizens  in 
reducing  crime,  (2)  the  speedy  and  inexpensive  rendering 
of  justice,  (3)  general  exercise  of  suffrage,  and  (4)  harsh  and 
unfair  criticisms  of  public  officials. 

Against  these  shortages  might  be  noted  recent  advances 
in  ideals  and  practices  relative  to:  (1)  the  efficient  perform- 
ance of  that  public  work  which  readily  lends  itself  to  simple 
engineering  standards,  as  water  supply  and  road  construction ; 
(2)  theft  of  public  funds;  (3)  patriotic  service  under  pressure  of 
war;  and  (4)  character  of  men  selected  for  executive  offices. 

b.  Among  the  citizens  of  all  groups  is  found  unnecessarily 
poor  scientific  understanding  of  those  economic  facts  and 
principles  that  now  largely  give  rise  to  political  action  — 
unnecessarily  poor,  that  is,  in  view  of  present  simplification 
of  economic  science  and  of  the  multiplied  attendance  now 
foimd  in  secondary  schools  and  colleges,  where  it  is  demon- 
strably practicable  to  teach  these  subjects  effectively. 

c.  Unpaid  political  service  must  always  be  expected 
chiefly  from  the  citizens  who  have  had  the  advantages  of 
secondary  and  collegiate  schooling.  But  comparison  with 
former  eras  or  certain  other  countries  shows  a  serious  preva- 
lence in  America  of  unwillingness  on  the  part  of  the  best- 
educated  groups  to  take  responsibilities  of  unpaid  office. 
It  is  believed  that  the  provision  in  secondary  schools  and 
colleges  of  special  teaching  service  and  courses  can  in  a 
measure  produce  improvements  here. 


138  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

d.  International  relationships  become  yearly  more  in- 
tricate and  more  vital  to  the  public  welfare.  But  here  again 
only  men  of  considerable  education  are  in  a  position  to 
possess  the  necessary  information  for  sound  judgments. 
Others  of  less  education  must  be  largely  influenced  by  their 
judgments.  But  it  appears  that  men  of  secondary  and 
higher  education  fall  lower  both  in  comprehension  of  inter- 
national matters  and  in  disposition  to  promote  international 
harmonies  than  is  desirable  and  probably  feasible  if  some- 
thing more  of  time  and  effort  were  given  to  these  ends  in 
secondary  schools  and  colleges. 

e.  Among  artisan  workers  it  is  found  that  certain  eco- 
nomic doctrines  are  held  which  are  unsupported  by  scientific 
evidence.  For  example,  they  hold  that  "labor  is  the  only 
source  of  wealth,"  meaning  that  in  corporation  production 
the  factors  of  capital  (seeking  interest)  and  organization 
and  risk-taking  (seeking  profits)  are  not  directly  productive 
and  therefore  are  unessential.  They  also  fail  to  distinguish 
between  money  as  currency  (measure  of  exchange  values) 
and  money  as  wealth  (especially  capital),  thus  giving  rise 
to  much  confusion  in  political  discussion  and  action. 

The  jury  is  of  the  belief  that  it  is  practicable  and  very 
desirable  to  provide,  perhaps  in  lieu  of  the  nonessential 
arithmetic  now  taught  in  junior  high  schools,  a  simplified 
economics  especially  designed  to  promote  the  formation  of 
sound  conceptions  in  these  clearly  defined  fields. 

/.  The  owning  farmers  of  the  North  Mississippi  Valley 
states  are  in  general  good  citizens.  But  by  admissions  of 
their  own  best-informed  members  their  most  pronounced 
general  civic  defect  at  present  is  a  failure  to  enter  into 
those  forms  of  public  and  voluntary  cooperation  which 
modern  economic  conditions  seem  to  necessitate,  such  as 
road  building,  cooperative  buying  and  selling,  the  joint 
ownership   of  expensive   and   occasionally  used  tools,   and 


OBJECTIVES  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION  139 

community  provision  of  facilities  for  diversion  and  recrea- 
tion. 

It  is  believed  that  provision  of  a  variety  of  very  simple 
and  concrete  readings  in  rural  schools,  such  readings  to  be 
promoted  by  teachers  in  the  homes  as  well  as  in  the  schools, 
would  largely  correct  these  defects  in  the  next  generation. 

Many  other  general  and  special  case  situations  could  thus 
be  studied  by  expert  committees.  Tendencies  to  be  con- 
stantly guarded  against  are,  obviously:  (1)  to  pursue  vague 
Utopian  ideals  of  social  well-being;  (2)  to  fail  to  take  account 
of  positive  and  valuable  qualities  now  found;  (3)  to  judge 
a  class  or  social  group  by  its  worst  members;  (4)  to  propose 
objectives,  the  practicability  of  which  is  still  very  question- 
able. But  it  is  clear  that  the  method  of  social  inquiry  here 
proposed  would  gradually  produce  for  school  use  a  variety 
of  concrete  and  feasible  objectives  toward  realizing  which 
through  didactic  instruction,  development  readings,  service 
projects,  and  the  like  definite  experimental  work  could  be 
undertaken. 

CIVIC    SHORTAGES   IN   SOCIAL   CLASSES 

The  objectives  of  civic  education  might  be  sought  from 
another  direction.  What  are  some  of  the  specific  weaknesses 
—  diseases  or  defects,  if  we  like  —  of  our  social  life?  Upon 
whom  —  class  or  group  —  in  the  first  instance  does  responsi- 
bility for  these  rest?  Can  these  defects  be  corrected  in  the 
next  generation? 

Sharp  distinctions  must,  of  course,  be  made  between  those 
alleged  defects  or  social  shortages  which  are  only  believed 
to  be  such  by  certain  experts  or  enthusiasts,  and  those 
others  as  to  which  there  is  general  agreement.  For  example, 
some  persons  greatly  favor  public  measures  to  conserve  or 
increase  wild  game.  But  the  value  of  wild  game  to  society 
is  still  far  from  clear,  except  in  a  few  specific  respects.    A 


140  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

party  forms  to  protect  from  private  exploitation  certain 
forests  or  waterfalls.  But  it  may  still  be  very  uncertain  as 
to  whether  the  aesthetic  values  of  these  in  the  natural  state 
outweigh  the  values  that  would  accrue  from  their  practical 
utilization.  Hundreds  of  problems  of  public  policy  as  to 
parks,  water  supply,  specialized  forms  of  education,  public 
control  of  utilities,  immigration,  finance,  control  of  com- 
merce, and  the  like  must  remain  for  years  perhaps  in  the 
limbo  of  "party"  discussion  and  propaganda,  participation 
in  which  on  the  part  of  schools  may  have  to  be  very  greatly 
limited. 

We  need  the  development  of  methods  by  which  a  large 
variety  of  generally  agreed-upon  social  valuations  can  be 
given  concrete  interpretation  in  such  definite  forms  that 
defects  or  shortages  can  be  traced  to  the  social  groups 
most  responsible.   For  example : 

a.  It  is  desirable  that  all  qualified  citizens  should  vote 
in  elections. 

(1)  Only  a  small  proportion  of  the  citizens  of  Community 
A  vote.  It  is  found  that  the  causes  are  political  apathy.  Pro- 
cedures for  correction  necessary  in  the  next  generation  should 
take  what  form? 

(2)  In  Community  B  a  few  men  and  many  women  vote. 
Causes?   Proposed  corrections? 

(3)  Traveling  men  and  others  away  from  home  cannot 
vote.  Remedies  to  be  found  in  other  than  educational 
means? 

b.  It  is  desirable  that  country  villages  should  be  physically 
and  morally  "clean."  First,  very  clear  definition  of  practical 
and  "sane"  standards  is  necessary.  Then,  in  terms  of  these 
standards : 

(1)  Villages  A  and  B  are  needlessly  below  par.  Are  edu- 
cational objectives  in  schools  practicable  for  corrective  pur- 
poses? 


OBJECTIVES  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION  141 

c.  It  is  desirable  that  all  urban  and  village  communities 
should  have  pure  water  supplied  by  public  or  private  cor- 
poration. Standards  need  definition,  and  these  judged  as 
practical  under  various  topographic  and  drainage  conditions. 

(1)  The  provision  of  pure  water  in  large  cities  is  now 
so  largely  a  direct  engineering  enterprise,  and  standards  of 
demand  on  part  of  the  public  are- so  well  established,  that 
no  vital  educational  problem  for  city  schools  is  found  here. 

(2)  Rural  villages  in  flat  regions  frequently  still  have 
very  defective  water  supplies.  Means  of  correcting  these 
defects  are  well  known.  Specific  civic  educational  objectives 
can  readily  be  devised. 

d.  In  time  of  actual  or  threatened  war  against  our  country, 
certain  new  attitudes  and  activities  are  very  much  needed. 
Concrete  definitions  are  needed  of  areas  of  freedom  of  criti- 
cism of  officials;  spending  on  luxuries;  submission  to  govern- 
ment orders;  volunteer  service,  etc. 

(1)  Group  A  (defined)  has  had  in  America  no  opportunity 
to  acquire  right  ideals  or  ideas  in  this  field.  What  educa- 
tional objectives  are  suggested?  What  for  Group  B,  which 
is  chiefly  old  American  stock? 

e.  (Hundreds  of  other  similar  devices  of  diagnostic  analy- 
sis can  be  readily  provided.) 

HOW   TEACH    PRINCIPLES? 

A  caution  is  necessary  at  this  point.  There  will  be  those 
to  urge  that  the  objectives  of  civic  education  must  be  for- 
mulated largely  in  terms  of  principles,  and  that  the  first 
aim  of  the  schools  shall  be  to  teach  these  principles.  This 
brings  us  to  one  of  the  worst  forms  of  pons  asinorum  over 
which  educators  stumble.  Dearly  loved  by  the  pedantic 
mind  is  the  teaching  of  "principles."  For  centuries  we  have 
been  attempting  it  in  mathematics,  philosophy,  and  classic 
literatures,  and  for  many  decades  at  least  in  natural  sciences, 


142  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

graphic  art,  and  the  social  sciences,  including  ethics.  But 
educators  who  rely  heavily  upon  the  teachings  of  principles 
find  themselves  always  more  or  less  defeated  in  their  efforts. 

Different  mental  types.  It  seems  very  probable  that  cur- 
rent psychology  still  interprets  this  field  of  pedagogy  inade- 
quately and  badly.  It  may  be,  for  example,  that  certain 
types  of  mind,  perhaps  certain  grades  of  intellectual  ability, 
acquire  vital  and  enduring  comprehensions  of  principles 
from  the  study  of  a  few  vivid  cases  or  examples;  whilst 
other  types  of  mind  can  build  them  only  laboriously  from 
wide  ranges  of  concrete  experience.  It  may  be  that  under 
some  conditions  of  "learning  interest"  or  "will  to  learn," 
where,  perhaps,  emotions  are  heavily  involved,  or  instinctive 
learning  appealed  to,  or  authority  brings  pressure  to  bear, 
a  very  few  experiences  or  cases  will  suffice  to  give  effective 
mastery  of  principles,  whereas  under  other  conditions  num- 
berless instances  may  result  in  only  verbal  and  largely 
unusable  mastery. 

In  view  of  the  well-known  futility  of  much  contemporary 
teaching  of  grammar,  social  science,  natural  science,  mathe- 
matics, and  fine  art,  where  important  goals  are  the  early 
mastery  of  principles,  teachers  of  the  civic  subjects  would 
be  well  advised  if  they  would  develop,  as  freely  as  circum- 
stances permit,  inductive  methods  of  approach,  involving 
abundant  use  of  case  instances  and  concrete  problems. 

ADAPTATIONS  OF  OBJECTIVES  TO  GROUPS  OF  LEARNERS 

As  stated  above,  the  large  determining  objectives  of  civic, 
as  of  other  forms  of  education,  must  be  sought  in  the  first 
instance  from  a  study  of  social  needs,  especially  as  these 
manifest  themselves  among  adults.  But  these  objectives 
cannot  be  made  the  bases  of  school  programs  until  they 
shall  have  been  selected  and  adapted  to  the  educational 
possibilities  of  various  levels  or  other  groupings  of  learners. 


OBJECTIVES  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION  143 

Some  phases  of  civic  education  can  probably  be  well  begun 
in  the  kindergarten,  whilst  others  are  appropriate  only  in 
the  later  grades  of  the  liberal  arts  college.  The  junior  high 
school  offers  excellent  opportunities  for  some  kinds  of  civic 
training,  whilst  bright  pupils  from  16  to  18  years  of  age 
ought  to  prove  readily  responsive  to  methods  of  "problem 
solving"  in  economic  and  other  similar  fields.  Very  probably 
we  shall  find  that  it  is  quite  futile  to  try  to  impart  certain 
kinds  of  civic  knowledge  to  children  of  sub-average  intelli- 
gence between  the  ages  of  12  and  15,  whereas  for  those 
of  relatively  high  intelligence  much  can  be  done  in  guiding 
insight  into  fairly  complex  problems.  On  the  basis  of  present 
experience  it  seems  fairly  probable : 

a.  That  in  children  of  ages  4  to  9  can  be  developed  many 
varieties  and  substantial  depths  of  civic  appreciation  and 
idealism  by  means  of  festivals,  patriotic  songs,  flag  saluting, 
lives  of  noteworthy  men,  women,  and  even  children,  stories 
of  adventure,  etc.  Properly  devised  commemorative  festi- 
vals, readings,  music,  excursions,  all  being  of  the  develop- 
mental class  of  objectives,  can  be  made  to  render  excellent 
service. 

b.  That  very  concrete  forms  of  community  civics  —  ex- 
perience getting  and  interpreting  —  can  be  profitably  studied 
by  children  from  9  to  12  years  of  age.  During  these  years 
processes  of  developing  civic  appreciations  and  ideals  can 
be  further  developed. 

c.  That  the  years  from  12  to  15  seem  especially  valuable 
for  the  varieties  of  activity  developed  under  scouting. 
Probably  they  are  very  suitable,  too,  for  the  production 
of  civic  idealism,  through  reading  of  the  materials  of  history 
and  study  of  simple  concrete  problems  of  economics,  espe- 
cially those  having  visible  projections  into  their  environment. 

These  are  the  years  of  the  junior  high  school.  The 
tendency  in  this  school,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted,  will  be 


144  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

in  the  direction  of  increasing  flexibility,  and  adaptation  of 
studies  to  different  grades  of  ability  and  prospects.  It  will 
certainly  prove  possible  at  this  level  to  provide  certain 
fairly  complex  units  of  study  in  economics,  political  and 
other  civic  problems  for  pupils  of  super-average  intelligence; 
whilst  for  pupils  of  sub-average  intelligence  somewhat  similar 
purposes  may  have  to  be  realized  through  concrete  "experi- 
ence giving"  —  via  the  project  method. 

KINDS   OF   OBJECTIVES   OF   CIVIC    EDUCATION 

For  many  purposes  it  will  prove  advantageous  to  divide 
the  objectives  of  civic  education  into  two  fundamental 
classes:  (a)  the  developmental  and  (6)  the  projective,  or  the 
"beta-alpha"  classification  used  in  educational  sociology. 

During  their  school  lives  children  are  steadily  growing 
into  civic  appreciations,  knowledge,  habits,  ideals.  Schools 
can  recognize,  and  in  a  measure  guide,  retard,  accelerate, 
or  otherwise  modify  these  growth  processes  according  to 
desire.  They  can  provide  new  nurtural  materials  for  such 
growth  through  story,  reading,  school-initiated  activity, 
school  controls.  Under  many  of  the  objectives  suggested 
later  in  this  book  it  must  be  remembered  that  children 
will  achieve  some  kinds  of  valuable  results  whether  the 
school  takes  part  or  not. 

For  example,  all  growing  youths  learn  from  their  environ- 
ment to  admire  heroic  personages  (heroic  by  the  standards 
of  whatever  social  influences  the  learners  are  subject  to), 
to  "believe  in"  certain  public  policies,  to  distrust  certain 
social  agencies,  to  hope  for  certain  types  of  social  action, 
etc.  In  many  cases  these  appreciations,  attitudes,  beliefs, 
forms  of  knowledge,  and  the  like  will  be  "small -group  cen- 
tered," unpatriotic,  tribal,  or  otherwise  wrong.  The  function 
of  the  school,  therefore,  is  to  substitute  sound  (and,  in 
some   instances,   corrective)    means  of  social  development. 


OBJECTIVES  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION  145 

Some  of  these  developmental  objectives  therefore  may  be 
of  this  character: 

a.  Wholesome  forms  of  "hero-appreciation." 

b.  Wholesome  appreciations  of  our  social  accomplish- 
ments, such  as  (1)  liberty,  (2)  abolition  of  slavery,  (3)  trial 
by  jury,  (4)  peace,  and  (5)  republican  institutions. 

c.  Wholesome  appreciations  of  founders,  men  who  have 
contributed  to  the  building  of  our  present  structures  such 
as  (1)  pioneers,  (2)  warriors,  (3)  inventors,  and  (4)  reformers. 


CHAPTER  NINE 

Education  for  Democracy 

American  government  has  from  its  colonial  beginnings 
rested  increasingly  on  bases  of  politically  democratic  aspira- 
tions and  ideals.  A  large  proportion  of  Americans  have 
consciously  sought  to  conserve  and  even  to  extend  the  social 
democracy  arising  spontaneously  from  the  primitive  con- 
ditions of  frontier  settlement.  At  least  some  forms  of  reli- 
gious democracy  have  also  been  deliberately  fostered.  There 
finally  arises  keen  interest  in  so-called  industrial  democracy. 

A  sound  system  of  civic  education  will,  in  America, 
naturally  aim  to  promote  the  aspirations  and  practices  of 
political  democracy.  A  good  system  of  social  education  will 
also  do  what  is  practicable  under  present  stages  of  social 
evolution  to  prepare  the  young  to  contribute  to,  and  par- 
ticipate in,  the  various  other  forms  of  democracy. 

Theories.  Of  the  making  of  books  on  democracy  there 
has  been  no  end.  Many  phases  of  the  subject  are  still 
philosophically  and  sociologically  obscure.  To  the  practical 
man  it  appears  that  not  a  few  of  the  ideals  of  democracy 
are  hopelessly  at  variance  with  the  realities  of  mundane  life. 
Hence  no  matter  how  complete  any  system  of  social  educa- 
tion may  be,  there  will  remain  numberless  problems  of 
democracy  which  are  still  so  speculative  that  only  the  few 
keenest  minds  can  hope  to  attack  them  profitably. 

For  educational  purposes,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  conditions,  faiths,  facts,  and  uncertainties  regarding 
democracy  be  given  detailed  analysis  and  arranged  in  some 
rough  order  of  authoritative  approval  and  acceptance.  If 
substantial  agreement  of  those  who  must  finally  dictate 
educational  policies  can  be  had  as  to  certain  general  prin- 
ciples, then  these  can  in  proper  season  be  made  the  basis 
of  the  selection  of  concrete  objectives  of  instruction.    The 

146 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY  147 

following  sociological  analysis  is  submitted  as  such  a  basis 
for  proposed  specific  courses  of  instruction,  training,  and 
practice  of  social  education  in  so  far  as  that  bears  on  the 
increase  and  conservation  of  democracy. 

SOCIOLOGICAL   CONDITIONS   OF   DEMOCRACY 

Differences  among  men.  By  some  standards  of  compari- 
son the  members  of  genus  homo  are  very  much  alike  and 
by  other  standards  they  differ  much  among  themselves. 

No  two  normal  human  beings  differ  so  much  in  bodily 
structure  from  each  other  in  their  maturity  as  each  does 
from  a  horse  or  an  eagle.  The  differences  between  a  Bantu 
and  an  Englishman  as  regards  speech  powers  are  less  great 
than  the  differences  between  each  and  an  ape  or  a  buffalo. 

The  poorest  normal  Digger  Indian  has  mental  powers, 
aesthetic  appreciations,  and  a  stock  of  customs  which  bring 
him  much  closer  to  the  professional  engineer  than  the 
possessions  of  the  chimpanzee  bring  him  to  the  Digger. 

When,  therefore,  we  discuss  human  inequalities  or  differ- 
ences it  is  important  to  remember  that  these,  while  of  very 
great  momentousness  by  human  standards,  are  of  less 
weight  by  ordinary  biological  standards  of  measurement. 

Varieties  in  homogeneity.  Among  the  members  compos- 
ing any  social  group  we  find  many  resemblances  and  many 
differences.  Certain  groups  are  deliberately  formed  of 
persons  very  much  alike  in  some  respects  —  football  teams, 
political  parties,  worshiping  groups.  In  others  certain 
elements  of  heterogeneity  are  a  necessary  condition  —  the 
family,  an  industrial  corporation,  a  village. 

But  in  all  natural  groups  numerous  and  often  great  in- 
equalities are  found.  Some  of  these  —  due  to  age,  sex,  hered- 
itary qualities,  habitat  —  are  said  to  derive  from  natural 
conditions;  whilst  others  are  traceable  principally  to  human 
agencies. 


148  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

a.  The  young  usually  possess  physical,  mental,  and  social 
powers  inferior  to  the  mature.  Normally,  therefore,  the 
young  are  subordinate,  and  liable  to  possible  abuse,  ex- 
ploitation, suppression.  The  very  aged,  also,  become  inferior 
to  the  middle-aged  in  physical,  mental,  and  other  powers. 

b.  Women  are  natively  inferior  to  men  of  the  same  ages, 
during  mature  years,  in  physical  strength,  mobility,  and  the 
mental  qualities  associated  with  aggression  against  animals 
and  hostile  men.  Women  probably  surpass  men  in  social 
qualities  of  sympathy,  aesthetic  response,  and  ready  sub- 
ordination to  minute  routine  work.  Cultures  intimately 
rooted  in  conditions  of  war  and  hunting  give  aggressive 
men  endless  opportunities  to  subjugate,  oppress,  overwork, 
and  repress  women,  which  disabilities  are  only  slowly  re- 
moved, as  such  cultures  shake  off  war  influences. 

nature's  limitations 

c.  The  earth's  surface  only  in  portions  offers  optimum 
material  environment  for  means  of  development.  Climates 
can  be  too  cold  or  too  warm,  too  dry  or  too  humid, 
too  variable  or  too  uniform  to  give  maximum  development 
of  the  individual,  even  apart  from  conditions  of  dietetic 
nurture  or  shelter.  The  frigid  zones,  the  lowlands  of  the 
torrid  zone,  the  deserts,  the  regions  of  heavy  persistent 
rainfall,  a  Siberia  where  barometric  variability  is  slight  — 
these  seem  to  develop  man  poorly,  as  contrasted  with  those 
sections  of  the  temperate  zones  where  cold  and  heat,  not 
extreme,  rapidly  alternate,  and  where  dry  days  and  humid 
days  rapidly  succeed  each  other.  In  lesser  degree,  topo- 
graphical conditions  seem  to  affect  development.  It  has, 
for  example,  long  been  believed  that,  under  primitive  con- 
ditions, mountain,  seashore,  and  desert  folk  are  more  rugged, 
enduring,  and  mobile  than  plainsmen.  (But  these  conclu- 
sions need  further  examination   of  occupational  concomi- 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY  149 

tants.)  Of  more  importance  to  modern  social  development 
(of  large  numbers  and  of  differentiated  occupations)  is  the 
fact  that  natural  resources  of  food  and  tools  are  distributed 
very  unevenly.  Only  four  regions  seem  to  possess  the  com- 
bined stores  of  coal  and  iron  necessary  for  modern  war 
or  industrial  development.  Only  limited  areas  can  now 
produce  on  the  gigantic  scales  required  by  civilized  society 
wheat,  meat,  cotton,  rubber,  oil,  copper,  rice,  sisal. 

Historically,  peoples  of  favored  regions  have  been  able, 
by  virtue  of  superior  qualities  of  their  individual  members, 
superior  numbers,  or  superior  organization,  to  dominate 
(with  resulting  extermination,  enslavement,  and  oppression 
—  economic,  political,  religious,  cultural)  peoples  of  adverse 
environment.  Some  of  the  profounder  problems  of  democ- 
racy today  involve  correction  of  these  oppressions. 

d.  Racial  differences.  Probably  many  generations  of 
natural  and  eugenic  selection  under  differing  environments 
produce  finally  inherent  or  racial  superiorities  and  inferiori- 
ties which  no  cultural  agencies  can  now  offset.  It  is  certain 
that  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  of  less  stature  than  Western 
Europeans  and  that  the  skull  size  of  certain  tropical  groups 
is  small.  It  may  or  may  not  be  true  that  Ainus,  Dravidians, 
Maoris,  Diggers,  and  Bushmen  represent  inferior  stocks 
when  contrasted  with  Manchus,  Sikhs,  Sioux,  Kaffirs.  Many 
thinkers  believe  that  Goth,  Teuton,  and  Norman  represent 
a  Nordic  race  superior  in  most  essentials  to  the  Negro  or 
American  Indian  races.  But  the  harmonizing  of  the  apparent 
inequalities  of  these  racial  groups  certainly  presents  prac- 
tical problems  for  future  world-statesmanship. 

e.  Family  variabilities.  Within  every  family  persons  of 
the  same  apparent  heredity  are  born  with  widely  varying 
qualities  —  brothers  differ  as  respects  physical  size,  strength, 
mental  abilities,  aesthetic  appreciations,  social  plasticities, 
dominance  of  sensual  instincts,  etc.    Similarly,  within  com- 


150  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

munities  of  substantially  similar  stocks,  individuals  appear 
of  all  grades  of  native  superiority  and  inferiority.  Army 
and  other  intelligence  tests  seem  confirmatory  of  this  con- 
clusion. 

/.  A  neighborhood  group  often  shows  a  condition  under 
which  superior  heredity  tends  to  repeat  in  the  same  family 
group,  and  especially  when  favored  by  selective  mating, 
thus  giving  local  (as  against  conquering)  aristocracies.  The 
aggrandizing  tendencies  of  these  lead  to  need  of  social  re- 
straints in  the  interest  of  the  weaker. 

g.  Variations  in  factors  of  social  heredity  —  stored  wealth, 
possession  of  strategic  vocations,  superior  education  —  tend 
similarly,  even  apart  from  advantages  of  native  heredity, 
to  accumulate  and  be  transmitted  in  certain  family,  caste, 
or  other  local  groups,  thus  again  eventually  necessitating 
collective  interference  in  interests  of  social  justice. 

h.  Such  collective  correction  becomes  especially  necessary 
when  variations  in  respect  to  native  or  social  inheritance 
tend  to  crystallize  into  institutional  forms  —  hereditary 
rulers,  priesthoods,  crafts,  landowners,  traders;  or,  in  effect, 
to  become  monopolies  of  certain  kinds  of  learning,  culture, 
sumptuary  right,  economic  direction,  etc. 

WHAT   IS   OLIGARCHY? 

The  numberless  inequalities  among  human  beings  have 
always  given  rise  to  certain  opposed  tendencies  which  will 
here  be  contrasted  as  the  "oligarchic"  and  the  "democratic." 

"To  him  that  has  shall  be  given;  while  from  him  that 
has  not  shall  be  taken  away  even  that  which  he  has,"  is 
the  text  of  oligarchy,  as  it  is  often,  indeed,  that  of  nature, 
where  not  offset  by  cooperative  or  other  socially  protective 
instincts.  Social  groups  have  advanced  and  enlarged  partly 
by  curbing,  training,  organizing,  governing,  and  working 
individuals   or   subordinated   groups   of   individuals.     That 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY  151 

inclusive  collective  group  now  called  "the  state"  claims,  of 
course,  very  extensive  rights  here,  justified  partly  on  the 
ground  that  it  has  the  sanction  of  the  majority,  the  "  safety 
of  the  republic  being  the  supreme  law."  Any  tendency  in 
group  activity  to  give  to  the  mature,  the  strong,  the  learned, 
the  highly  ranked,  the  masculine  (or  feminine),  the  wealth- 
holding,  or  the  naturally  able,  large  powers  of  control, 
direction,  sumptuary  advantage,  and  the  like  can  be  regarded 
as  oligarchic  (without,  of  course,  now  raising  the  question 
as  to  whether  in  the  long  run  the  kinds  and  degrees  of 
superordination  thus  established  are  good  or  evil).  Simi- 
larly any  tendency  to  subordinate  an  individual  or  a  subject 
group  because  of  inferiorities  of  strength,  intelligence,  co- 
operativeness,  productivity,  and  the  like  will  be  called 
oligarchic.  In  a  strictly  social  sense,  the  term  can  best  be 
restricted  to  man-made  conditions,  accentuating  or  prolong- 
ing inequalities  deriving  from  natural  causes. 

WHAT   IS   DEMOCRACY? 

The  term  "democracy"  is  used  to  include  all  tendencies 
on  the  part  of  man  to  compensate  for  the  inequalities  im- 
posed by  nature  as  well  as,  of  course,  the  correction  of 
those  due  to  human  action.  Within  any  group  systematic 
effort  can  be  made  through  individuals  or  collective  action 
to  assist,  liberate,  upbuild,  and  exalt  inferior  or  subordinated 
individuals  or  sub-groups.  In  recent  decades  it  has  come 
to  be  strongly  held  as  a  faith  that  "more  democracy"  is 
not  only  a  social  "good"  for  individuals,  but  a  necessary 
means  to  "larger  group  efficiency"  —  that  is,  "in  the  long 
run." 

We  can  assume  that  the  "greatest  good  of  the  greatest 
number"  is  the  final  justification  of  democracy,  and  deter- 
mines its  desirable  limits,  subject,  possibly,  to  corrections: 
(a)   from   certain   Christian   tenets  that  each   human   soul 


152  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

is  infinitely  precious  and  that  earthly  inequalities  are  wholly 
negligible  as  against  heaven-destined  perfections;  and  (6) 
certain  philosophic  tenets  that  the  "individual"  is  primarily 
an  "end"  in  himself  rather  than  a  "means"  to  society 
or  to  the  collective  good  of  many  other  individuals. 

Oligarchy  and  democracy  have  been  designated  "social 
tendencies."  But  the  "values"  of  these  tendencies,  now 
held  in  part  as  instincts  and  partly  as  faiths,  must  ultimately 
be  determined  from  whatever  scientific  sources  shall  give 
us  standards  of  other  social  values.  All  social  groups  require 
something  of  oligarchy  —  and  they  can  easily  get  too  much ; 
and  they  all  require  something  of  democracy  —  and  perhaps 
of  it  also  they  can  get  too  much.  In  their  present  stages 
of  evolution  most  societies  move  steadily  toward  certain 
kinds  of  democracy  —  at  least,  democracy  in  certain  func- 
tions —  and  perhaps  they  move  away  from  it  as  respects 
others.  They  can  best  be  understood  from  the  analysis  of 
specific  social  situations. 

The  struggle  between  group  and  individual  is,  of  course, 
ancient  and  inherent.  It  is  always  possible  for  the  indi- 
vidual —  child,  soldier,  employee  —  to  foster  his  own  in- 
terests at  the  expense  of  the  group  —  at  least  what  he  for 
the  moment  conceives  to  be  his  interests  of  pleasure,  survival, 
liberty,  wealth.  The  selfish  member  of  the  family,  the 
grasping  partner,  the  shirking  employee,  the  craven  soldier, 
the  venal  voter,  the  idler,  and  the  monopolist  are  always 
doing  this. 

On  the  other  hand  it  is  no  less  common  for  the  group 
unduly  to  coerce,  overwork,  mentally  cramp,  suppress,  or 
otherwise  subjugate  the  individual.  Families,  clans,  churches, 
armies,  autocracies,  labor  unions,  industrial  organizations, 
and  even  the  state  have  done  this  repeatedly.  Especially 
have  they  done  it  through  oligarchical  agencies  or  mob 
control,  to  children,  women,  conquered  peoples,  aliens,  the 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY  153 

unintelligent,  the  unorganized,  the  poor,  the  unaggressive, 
and  the  like. 

SOCIAL   REPRESSIONS 

Undemocratic  repression  of  individuals  handicapped  by 
natural  inferiorities  may,  under  primitive  or  simple  social 
conditions,  be  somewhat  offset  by : 

a.  Instinctive  and  custom-bred  sympathies  of  parents  and 
other  elders  for  youngers,  leading  to  protection,  education, 
encouragement  of  individual  development. 

b.  Filial  and  community  sympathies  with  aged,  sick,  and 
otherwise  incapacitated. 

c.  Women's  abilities  to  win  affection,  to  enlist  chivalry, 
and  sometimes  to  inspire  fear,  from  men,  especially  in 
domestic  and  vocational  fields  in  which  man  does  not  habit- 
ually operate. 

d.  "Protected  harbor"  occupations,  evolved  by  subdi- 
vision of  labor,  into  which  individuals  of  inferior  gifts  fit 
quite  comfortably. 

e.  The  conjoining  of  leadership  of  the  strong  with  fol- 
lowership  of  the  weak  in  bands,  companies,  gangs,  and 
unions,  thus  insuring,  especially  to  the  weak,  the  maximum 
of  possible  opportunity  for  self-realization. 

/.  Defensive  unions  developed  by  the  inferior,  in  which 
numbers  and  organization  produce  offensive  powers  sufficient 
to  insure  some  independence. 

g.  The  retreat  of  the  weak  to  environments  —  mountain, 
island,  desert,  slum  —  where  competition  with  the  strong 
is  less  pressing. 

Collective  social  efficiency.  But,  in  advanced  stages  of 
social  evolution,  possibilities  of  exploitation  of  weak  indi- 
viduals, weak  groups,  or  weak  stocks  become  great;  while 
needs  of  "large  group"  social  efficiency,  as  well  as  altruistic 
pursuit  of  "ideals  of  justice,"  progressively  increase  demands 
for  removal  of  "man-imposed"  repressions  of  the  weak,  as 


154  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

well  as  reasonable  mitigation  of  nature-imposed  inferiorities. 
To  these  ends  are  addressed:  (a)  concerted  efforts  of  self- 
protecting  organizations  of  the  oppressed;  (b)  efforts  of 
philanthropic  bodies  (including  religious  and  voluntary 
political)  on  behalf  of  others  than  themselves  (and  perhaps 
using  education,  political  action,  and  force) ;  and  eventually 
(c)  the  efforts  of  the  state  itself,  led  thereto  by  its  persuaded 
rulers  or  ruling  majority.  A  thousand  hard-won  achieve- 
ments, contemporary  "movements,"  and  slowly  crystallizing 
social  ideals  of  this  character  may  all  be  generalized  as 
"modern"  democracy.   Some  examples  are: 

a.  Parental  interests  and  unorganized  social  sympathies 
with  childhood  do  not  always  suffice  to  insure  the  "fair 
start  in  life"  which  democratic  idealism  aspires  to.  The 
orphan,  the  child  born  out  of  wedlock,  the  child  prematurely 
forced  to  work  away  from  home,  and  the  child  deprived  of 
opportunities  for  education  or  religious  communion  —  these 
have  first  claimed  concerted  effort,  which  now  manifests 
itself  in  scores  of  specific  demands  and  collective  movements. 
Present  problems  include:  legitimation  of  the  "illegitimate"; 
proper  rearing  of  orphans;  proper  limits  to  "child  labor" 
legislation;  state  protection  of  motherhood;  vocational 
guidance  and  training;  health  supervision;  eugenic  super- 
vision of  rights  of  parenthood,  etc. 

b.  The  "disabilities  of  women"  incorporated  into  law, 
religious  custom,  and  subdivision  of  economic  labor  have 
been  in  process  of  gradual  removal  for  centuries,  but  the 
end  is  not  yet.  Current  movements  for  franchise;  for  voca- 
tional "equality";  for  equal  control,  within  the  family 
group,  of  property,  offspring,  place  of  habitation,  and  rights 
of  worship;  and  for  other  forms  of  "independence,"  are  of 
poignant  interest,  partly  because  in  some  cases  essential 
social  foundations  may  be  in  process  of  being  undermined 
faster  than  new  supports  are  building. 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY  155 

c.  Vested  inequalities  of  various  kinds  have  been  measur- 
ably corrected  by  modern  movements  for  political  democ- 
racy, originating  in  revolts  of  "guild"  cities,  "protesting" 
religious  denominations,  seceding  colonies,  and  unenfran- 
chised majorities.  Achievements  can  be  traced  in :  impairment 
of  hereditary  nobilities;  spread  of  constitutional  govern- 
ment; government  through  elected  representatives;  exten- 
sion of  suffrage;  equalization  of  taxation;  protection  of 
freedom  of  speech  and  press;  development  of  public  educa- 
tion; and  numberless  modifications  of  these  in  abolition  of 
slavery,  freedom  of  migration,  secrecy  of  voting,  etc. 

Problems  appear  as  to:  alien  citizenship;  procuring  gov- 
ernmental "efficiency"  under  the  "many  bosses"  of  demo- 
cratic control;  dangers  of  "mass"  control  by  those  of  in- 
ferior political  experience,  knowledge,  or,  possibly,  potential 
abilities  —  negro  caste,  soviet  of  manual  laborers,  warrens 
of  city,  a  special  religious  group;  how  to  "educate"  indi- 
viduals for  social  efficiency. 

Aspirations  for  more  political  democracy  within  modern 
nations  are  now  chiefly  confined  to  unenfranchised  adults, 
repressed  racial  groups  (negroes,  "submerged  nationalities"), 
repressed  geographic  groups  (cities  wanting  home  rule, 
Rhode  Island's  opposition  to  Constitution),  and  victims  of 
political  machinery,  "bosses,"  or  bureaucracies. 

SOCIAL   DEMOCRACY 

d.  Under  "social  democracy"  we  can  include  aspirations, 
programs,  and  achievements  for  correction  or  mitigation 
of  disabilities,  due  to  nature  or  social  art,  on  consumption, 
intermarriage,  sociability,  culture,  migration,  worship,  etc. 

Formerly,  as  outcomes  of  totemic,  religious,  caste,  and 
the  other  restrictions  of  social  control,  many  restraints 
were  imposed  on  consumption,  and  especially  on  decoration. 
Some  food  taboos  are  yet  imposed  by  churches,  and  dress 


156  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

of  sexes  is  still  forcibly  differentiated.  But  where  political 
democracy  prevails  other  sumptuary  restraints  on  the  in- 
dividual have  dwindled  to  conventional  forms  (coats  for 
men,  decorative  uniform  for  soldiers,  etc.). 

Intermarriage  of  white  and  black  castes  is  now  legally 
prohibited  in  many  states.  Strong  conventionalities  restrain 
freedom  of  marriage  between  individuals  of  unlike  economic, 
ancestral,  or  religious  connections.  But  freedom  of  divorce 
operates  to  give  relative  independence  to  women,  with 
balance  of  harm  probably  for  children. 

Exclusive  groups.  In  fellowship,  convivial  and  some  cul- 
tural groups  making  of  sociability  a  large  purpose,  a  maxi- 
mum of  democracy  tends  to  prevail  within  groups  "elected" 
to  be  homogeneous;  accompanied  by  markedly  exclusive, 
"undemocratic"  attitudes  toward  the  "non-elect."  Note 
examples  in  cliques,  gangs,  "sets,"  social  clubs,  fraternities, 
"secret  societies,"  grades  of  hotels,  Pullman  cars,  residence 
districts,  occupational  levels,  cultural  levels.  But  commer- 
cialization of  amusements  (photo-drama,  restaurant,  dance 
hall,  excursion,  resorts,  etc.)  and  transportation  (street  cars, 
local  trains,  and  local  ships  having  no  "classes")  as  well 
as  public  provision  of  social  facilities  —  streets,  parks,  public 
lectures,  public  libraries,  museums  —  all  weaken  or  remove 
barriers  to  "democratic"  association. 

But  free  association  or  sociability  is  now  governed  largely 
by  sumptuary  and  other  caste-like  cleavages.  "Sets"  or 
"classes"  restrict  to  those  able  to  dress,  maintain,  recreate, 
and  educate  themselves  on  similar  planes.  Manners,  con- 
ventions, mutual  interests,  thus  become  stratified  in  society, 
each  plane  relatively  insulated  from  those  above  and  below. 
Of  only  somewhat  less  vitality  in  preventing  "sociability" 
democracy  are  racial,  religious,  and  occupational  distinctions. 

Formerly  "culture  classes"  held  apart,  especially  the 
"erudite"  and  the  unlettered.    Latin  and  Greek  were  once 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY  157 

prized  because  they  denoted  "gentle  rearing."  Now  these 
distinctions  tend  to  disappear  as  modern  education  becomes 
general,  but  similar  distinctions  attach  to  "club"  groupings 
for  sociability  purposes. 

Formerly  collective  action  greatly  impeded  freedom  of 
migration  and  residence.  Surviving  restrictions  rest  largely 
on  grounds  of  political  expediency,  and  are  directed  chiefly 
against  immigration,  property  holding,  and  trade  (cf.  immi- 
gration of  Hindus  to  Canada,  Australia,  South  xAfrica;  of 
Chinese,  Japanese,  polygamists,  and  avowed  anarchists  to 
the  United  States;  of  low-class  English  labor  to  Canada, 
etc.). 

Formerly  religions  were  variously  exclusive.  Some  held 
no  salvation  for  women,  low  castes,  peoples  not  chosen  by 
God.  But  the  world  faiths  have  been  strongly  propagan- 
dist^, inclusive,  and  even  destructive  of  undemocratic  barriers 
resting  on  other  grounds  (primitive  Christianity,  Quakerism, 
Unitarianism,  Roman  Catholicism).  Caste  (blacks  vs. 
whites)  affects  some  churches  in  America;  while  economic 
differences  are  alleged  to  debar  the  "poor"  from  others. 

Except  in  the  case  of  color  barriers  to  free  intermarriage, 
existing  limitations  on  "social  democracy"  seem  to  inhere 
more  fundamentally  in  economic  differentiations  (productive 
powers,  possessions,  consuming  powers,  standards  of  living) 
than  in  race,  religion,  or  ancestral  family,  since  economic- 
equalization,  after  a  period  of  adjustment,  seems  to  remove 
barriers  more  certainly  than  other  changes.  Probably  this 
affects  contemporary  interest  in  "industrial  democracy." 

INDUSTRIAL   DEMOCRACY 

e.  Under  the  term  "industrial  democracy"  should  be 
considered  many  of  the  most  vital  aspirations  of  the  present 
age.  These  are  probably  inevitable  effects  of  recent  rapid 
economic     developments,    transformations     of     productive 


158  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

processes,    multiplications  of  populations,  rising  standards 
of  living,  curtailment  of  natural  resources,  etc. 

Native  inequalities  of  productive  ability  —  due  to  age, 
sex,  physical  strength  and  dexterity,  endurance,  mental 
powers,  self-control,  avid  appetites  —  combine  everywhere 
with  socially  produced  inequalities  —  birth  in  poor  regions 
and  of  poor  parents  or  in  poor  times,  acquired  ill-health, 
deprivation  of  suitable  education,  accidental  entrance  upon 
a  badly  developed  or  declining  economic  "lead"  —  to  give 
numberless  and  very  wide  economic  inequalities  between 
regional  classes,  classes  derived  from  different  economic 
levels,  and  classes  affected  by  different  stages  or  types  of 
economic  evolution;  and  still  wider  inequalities  among  indi- 
viduals. Political  democracy,  general  education,  and  free- 
dom of  migration  tend  to  mitigate  these  inequalities,  but 
probably  not  to  the  same  extent  that  these  influences  gener- 
ally raise  standards  of  living,  which  are  always  the  torturing 
provocatives  of  economic  demand.  Communism  (of  owner- 
ship and  for  consumption)  becomes  one  end  of  economic 
democracy  (an  end  realized  in  the  family,  the  pioneering 
company  or  industrial  crew,  and  many  primitive  religious 
communities,  but  with  no  enduring  examples  among  com- 
plex, advanced  peoples).  Copartnership,  profit-and-loss 
sharing,  guild  control,  state  operation  (with  no  "profits"), 
and  cooperative  exchange,  are  current  experiments  toward 
other  kinds  of  economic  democracy. 

STRIVINGS   FOR  MORE  DEMOCRACY 

Efforts  to  realize  ideals  of  democracy  as  factors  in  social 
efficiency  give  rise  to  many  problems  of  conflicting  social 
forces.  Where  life  is  primitive,  scattered,  unorganized,  there 
are  few  problems  of  democracy,  since  (a)  man  collectively 
has  few  means  of  removing  nature-imposed  disabilities  on 
the  individual,  and  (b)  collectively  he  has  had  reason  to 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY  159 

impose  only  a  few  of  his  own  that  are  not  essential  to  small 
group  survival. 

But  as  men  multiply,  organize,  and  expand  the  social 
inheritance,  their  powers  of  helping  various  kinds  and  classes 
of  individuals  to  fuller  lives,  in  spite  of  natural  limitations, 
increase;  and  the  possibilities  of  more  carefully  adjusting 
the  yokes  of  social  control  and  economic  control,  and  of  so 
increasing  justice  as  to  preserve  the  social  effectiveness  of 
the  individual,  and  at  the  same  time  give  him  the  maximum 
of  individual  freedom,  always  exist.  For  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  America  the  most  pressing  current  problems 
seem  to  be  those  of  democratizing  all  those  social  agencies 
in  which  elaborateness  of  mechanism  oppresses,  or  seems 
to  oppress,  the  individual  or  sub-group. 

Evolution  of  democracy.  Everywhere  the  radicals  strive 
for  more  democracy  of  some  variety  (sometimes  organizing 
their  strivings  in  very  undemocratic  ways)  and  in  propaganda 
they  ignore  or  depreciate  social  achievements  under  methods 
they  would  correct  or  supplant.  Everywhere  the  conserva- 
tives strive  against  hasty  or  far-reaching  action,  fearing  to 
lose  in  revolution,  present  gains  —  fearing  especially,  of 
course,  on  behalf  of  themselves  and  those  nearest  them. 
The  mills  of  the  gods  meantime  grind  on  and  nature  ulti- 
mately gives  the  final  verdict.   Note  some  of  the  problems: 

a.  Political  democracy,  having  achieved  general  suffrage 
and  removed  disability  to  office  holding,  finds  endless  diffi- 
culties in  the  complexities  of  the  problems  it  faces.  Officials 
will  not  act  as  majority  superficially  think  they  should, 
hence  corrections  sought  in  recall,  initiative  and  referendum, 
soviet  (economic  class)  representation,  simplification  of 
constitutional  amendment,  the  short  ballot,  etc.  Hence 
popular  opposition  to  appointment  of  officials  to  indefinite 
tenure,  and  other  conditions  provocative  of  bureaucracy. 

b.  Freedom    of   access    of    women    to    all    wage-earning 


160  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

employments  has  been  won,   but  ultimate  effects  of  this 
on  normal  family  life  still  constitute  problems. 

c.  Production  organized  on  corporation  basis  creates 
extensive  regimentation  of  workers.  Initiative  lies  chiefly 
with  those  factors  who  own,  or  can  command,  capital 
wherewith  to  procure  means  of  production  —  land,  mines, 
patents,  machines,  raw  materials,  franchises,  technical 
knowledge.  In  corporation  production  —  best  exemplified  in 
railroads,  factories,  banks,  steamships,  mines,  some  tropical 
farming  —  areas  of  individual  initiative  are  lessened  for 
rank  and  file,  and  intensified  for  specialists,  as  is  military 
initiative  for  soldiers  and  officers  in  the  army  camp.  Hence 
eventually  collective  dissatisfaction,  unionization  for  self- 
protection,  and  emergence  of  vague  but  insistent  demands 
for  "industrial  democracy."  Can  a  large  army  be  demo- 
cratic and  efficient?  Can  the  crew  effectively  dictate  or 
share  in  determining  the  course  of  a  steamer?  To  what 
extent  can  workers  determine  policies  of  a  large  factory? 
Who  shall  take  the  initiative  in  development,  e.g.,  in  plan- 
ning new  railways  or  opening  new  mines?  (But  note  impor- 
tance of  distinctions  between  powers  to  discover  courses  of 
action,  and  capacities  to  discriminate  among  courses  de- 
vised by  specialists,  as  basis  for  democratic  control.) 

EDUCATION   AS   A   MEANS   TO   DEMOCRACY 

The  foregoing  analysis  of  the  essential  factors  and  prob- 
lems of  democracy  suggests  that  some  of  these  may  be 
now  made  the  objectives  of  specialized  forms  of  social  edu- 
cation. With  respect  to  others,  the  educator  may  have 
to  wait  for  the  social  economist  to  discover  valid  orienta- 
tions and  concrete  objectives  for  collective  action. 

The  most  obvious  and  insistent  fact  in  the  recent  evolution 
of  democracy  has  been  the  exaltation  of  the  individual  — 
with  emphasis,  naturally,  first  on  those  whose  natural  or 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY  161 

man-made  disabilities  were  pronounced.  Religious  propa- 
ganda —  Christianity  with  its  high  valuation  of  the  indi- 
vidual soul,  irrespective  of  externals,  as  well  as  Buddhism 
and  Confucianism;  political  revolution  —  for  liberty,  for 
equality,  for  fraternity,  for  socialism,  for  the  breakdown  of 
caste  and  rank;  philanthropy  with  its  yearnings  for  the 
handicapped,  the  imprisoned,  the  neglected;  and  social 
reform  silently  striving  for  a  thousand  mitigations  of  adverse 
conditions  —  these  have  nearly  all  championed  the  weak 
individual  against  the  strong. 

The  next  most  obvious  fact  is  the  struggle  for  democracy 
as  among  groups  —  from  families,  vocational  and  sump- 
tuary groupings,  to  nationalities,  castes,  and  races.  The 
"self-determination"  of  small  nations  is  an  aspiration 
paralleled  by  similar  aspirations  among  manual  workers, 
tillers  of  the  soil,  unmarried  women  workers,  school  students, 
rural  dwellers,  colored  races,  and  the  mentally  inferior. 
Many  of  the  problems  of  "equalization"  raised  by  these 
must  remain  for  some  time  in  the  limbo  of  "sociological 
faiths." 

Any  process  of  exalting  men,  either  individually  or  in 
relatively  homogeneous  groups,  soon  reaches  the  point 
where  the  similar  or  equal  rights  of  others  (contemporary 
or  of  the  future)  are  about  to  be  infringed.  Exactly  when 
and  where  this  point  is,  or  can  be,  reached  remains  often 
obscure  in  the  present  state  of  social  science.  Hence  endless 
strife  on  the  part  of  given  individuals  to  claim  more  from 
their  small  groups  than  these  think  right,  of  small  groups 
to  claim  more  from  their  large  groups  than  the  latter  believe 
just  or  expedient.  Hence  also  constant  demands  on  the  part 
of  individuals  and  small  groups  for  their  "rights"  and 
insistence  on  the  part  of  more  inclusive  groups  on  "duties" 
of  individuals  and  small  groups. 

For  purposes  of  democracy  under  complex  conditions  of 


162  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

civilization  it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  man's  instinctive 
equipment  is  seriously  inadequate  and  that  his  deficiencies 
must  be  overcome  by  education  which  may  have  to  be 
at  times  strenuous.  The  social  instincts  are  in  the  main 
products  of  "small  group"  needs;  and  in  so  far  as  they 
tend  to  be  broadly  "altruistic"  or  "humanitarian,"  they 
are  easily  overcome  by  self -regarding  or  "small  group  re- 
garding" instincts  or  acquired  attitudes. 

It  must  always  be  recognized  that  in  the  case  of  democ- 
racy, as  of  all  other  comprehensive  social  aspirations  (for 
Christianity,  liberty,  peace,  diffused  economic  well-being), 
numberless  chasms  between  ideals  and  attainable  ends  will 
be  discovered  because  of  failure  to  take  into  account  facts 
of  nature  that  may  be  immutable.  And  nature,  as  thus 
interpreted,  certainly  includes  the  "original"  nature  of  man 
as  that  may  differently  exist  among:  children  and  adults; 
the  natively  strong  and  the  natively  weak  as  respects  muscle, 
brain,  combative  disposition,  sympathy,  or  economic  need; 
black  and  white;  Bushman  and  Kaffir;  Saxon  and  Indian. 

EDUCATION   FOR   DEMOCRACY 

How  far  and  toward  what  specific  objectives  can  civic 
or  other  forms  of  school  education  be  directed  toward  the 
realization  of  the  probably  sound  aspirations  of  contemporary 
democracy?  Approval  can  be  given  certainly  to: 

a.  All  that  civic  education  which  assures  acceptance  in 
concrete  form  of  the  obligations  of  all  of  us  to  "respect 
the  rights  of  others"  as  these  are  defined  by  law  or  majority 
public  opinion  at  any  time.1 

1  Probably  we  must  hold  in  a  democracy  that  "the  majority  is  most 
nearly  right."  But,  practically,  the  word  "majority"  needs  to  be  given 
something  other  than  a  purely  numerical  meaning.  "One  with  God  is  a 
majority."  In  actual  social  practice  at  any  given  time  and  in  spite  of 
suffrage  laws  and  all  other  devices  to  insure  "one  man,  one  vote,"  men  do 
not  weigh   equally   in   determining  civic  action.    The  intelligent  man,  if 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY  163 

b.  All  those  forms  of  general  or  vocational  education 
which,  without  imposing  excessive  burdens  of  taxation  on 
others,  increase  the  strength,  confidence,  ambitions,  culture, 
useful  standards  of  living,  vocational  competency,  and 
several  varieties  of  cooperative  abilities  of  the  naturally 
or  socially  handicapped.1 

c.  All  those  forms  of  liberal  and  vocational  education 
which  increase  in  the  naturally  and  socially  advantaged 
(the  gifted  and  environmentally  favored)  appreciations  of, 
and  aspirations  to  render,  altruistic  social  service.1 

d.  Obviously  the  optimum  resultants  of  oligarchic  and 
democratic  operation  for  school  class  groups  and  the  school 
group  as  a  whole  can  be  discovered  and  utilized,  partly 


politically  active,,  may  outweigh  hundreds  of  unintelligent  mature  men. 
The  decisions  reached  by  majorities  or  the  courses  of  action  apparently 
determined  by  them,  are  in  reality  initiated  and  dictated  by  a  few  who  are, 
for  whatever  reasons,  far-sighted  and  disposed  to  take  trouble. 

1  There  remains,  then,  the  Strong  Man  from  whom  the  results  of  our 
dissection  cannot  be  hidden.  It  is  this  that  troubles  those  of  little  faith. 
I  hear  them  say : 

"But  the  Strong  Man  at  whose  expense  you  widen  your  realm  of  order 
and  justice!  How  if  this  man  —  thanks  to  your  revelations  —  breaks  the 
net  in  which  society  would  enclose  him  and  stands  forth  free!   What  then?" 

To  this  would  I  reply: 

The  end  is  not  yet.  The  last  word  is  not  said.  The  Strong  Man  who 
has  come  to  regard  social  control  as  the  scheme  of  the  many  weak  to  bind 
down  the  few  strong  may  be  brought  to  see  it  in  its  true  light  as  the  safe- 
guarding of  a  venerable  corporation,  protector  not  alone  of  the  labors  of 
living  men  for  themselves  but  also  of  the  labors  of  bygone  men  for  coming 
generations,  guardian  not  merely  of  the  dearest  possessions  of  innumerable 
persons,  but  likewise  of  the  spiritual  property  of  the  human  race  —  of  the 
inventions  and  discoveries,  the  arts  and  the  sciences,  the  secrets  of  healing, 
and  the  works  of  delight,  which  he  himself  is  free  to  enter  into  and  enjoy. 

When  thus  to  the  issue  between  him  and  the  living  men  who  ask  him 
to  concede  to  them  no  more  than  they  concede  to  him,  there  is  joined  the 
issue  between  him  and  the  dead  men  who  have  endowed  him  with  the 
fruits  of  their  toil  on  the  sole  condition  of  passing  them  on  intact  to  pos- 
terity, the  ancient  spirit  of  fair  play  —  the  "I  AM"  that  was  before  all 
codes  and  controls  and  will  be  when  they  are  gone  —  will  make  itself  heard 
in  the  heart  of  the  Strong  Man. 

And  its  verdict  will  not  be  adverse  to  the  claims  of  society. 

E.  A.  Ross,  Social  Control 


164  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

as  examples,  partly  as  sources  of  elementary  appreciations, 
ideals,  and  insights. 

DEMOCRATIC   EDUCATION 

The  degree  to  which  education  is  democratic  in  its  ad- 
ministration can  be  measured  against  these  principles : 

a.  The  public  control  and  support  of  education  in  a 
society  whose  dominant  aspirations  are  for  certain  kinds  of 
democracy  operate  to  prevent  such  control  by  undemocratic 
or  "class "  minorities.  The  freeing  of  the  pupil  or  his  parents 
from  financial  burdens  operates  still  further  in  the  same 
direction.  Where  higher  or  special  schools  must  be  restricted 
to  a  few,  the  selection  of  these  on  the  basis  of  open  com- 
petition based  on  merit  only  is  democratic.  Hence  the  free 
tuition  of  x\merica's  high  and  elementary  schools,  free  text- 
books, free  transportation  from  distant  points  to  central 
schools,  as  well  as  the  system  of  admitting  to  war  academies, 
normal  schools,  and  universities  on  the  basis  of  merit  only, 
are  measures  of  democratic  education. 

b.  Cost-free  opportunities  for  learning  are,  however, 
insufficient  to  overcome  the  handicaps  of  the  very  poor. 
Hence  public  provision  of  free  food,  free  clothes,  and  free 
residence  (e.g.,  as  made  possible  by  maintenance  scholar- 
ships, free  lunches,  etc.)  is  often  proposed  in  order  to  in- 
crease the  democracy  of  education.  Normal  schools  in  Great 
Britain  and  war  service  academies  in  America  provide  free 
maintenance.  But  other  handicaps  remain.  Some  children, 
upward  of  15  years  of  age,  are  expected  to  aid  in  the  support 
of  dependent  parents.  To  insure  complete  equality  of  edu- 
cational opportunity  to  these  it  would  be  necessary  to  relieve 
them  of  their  filial  burdens. 

c.  The  democracy  of  public  education  can  furthermore 
be  measured  by  the  extent  to  which  it  prevents  segregation 
or  promotes  association  or  fraternization.    Segregation  or 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY  165 

exclusiveness  is  often  desired  by  parents  having  high  stand- 
ards as  a  means  of  preventing  the  lowering  of  manners, 
morals,  cultures,  speech,  sociability  ideals,  religious  ideals, 
and  the  like  of  their  children.  In  many  American  states 
racial  segregation  is  demanded  by  public  opinion  —  of 
negroes,  of  Japanese,  of  Indians. 


PART  THREE 

PROBLEMS  OF  OBJECTIVES,  COURSES,  AND 
RESEARCH  IN  CIVIC  EDUCATION 


CHAPTER  TEN 

Means  and  Methods  of  Civic  Education 

Civic  education,  being  but  one  division  of  social  educa- 
tion, partakes  necessarily  of  the  means  and  methods  that 
have  become  more  or  less  historic  in  the  larger  field.  Em- 
phasis has  previously  been  laid  on  the  fact  that  whereas 
extra-school  agencies  have  always  been  responsible  for  the 
major  part  of  both  moral  and  religious  education,  school 
agencies  tend  to  become  increasingly  responsible  for  civic 
education  proper. 

The  means  and  the  methods  of  any  form  of  education, 
if  its  pedagogy  is  at  all  well  developed,  should  probably 
have  separate  treatment.  Unfortunately  this  separation  is 
neither  very  practicable  nor  profitable  in  a  field  that  is 
still  so  formative  as  is  civic  education.  Each  type  of  method 
of  civic  education  now  being  given  experimental  trial  in 
schools  is  very  closely  tied  up  with  the  specific  means  adapted 
to  its  application.  Only  in  the  cases  of  American  history 
and  didactic  civics  have  the  means,  in  the  shape  of  texts 
and  various  other  adjuncts,  become  sufficiently  standardized 
to  permit  of  independent  consideration  apart  from  the 
methods  employed  in  using  them.  In  the  various  other 
divisions  of  civic  education  now  in  process  of  development  — 
such  as  self-directed  school  discipline,  service  projects,  de- 
velopmental readings,  scouting,  and  social  problems  —  at- 
tempts to  force  clear-cut  distinctions  between  means  and 
methods  would  only  result  in  confusion.  Emphasis  must 
again  be  given  to  the  fact  that  nearly  all  the  processes 
of  purposive  civic  education  are  still  very  experimental  and 
undeveloped,  largely  owing  to  absence  of  clear-cut  objec- 
tives based  on  analysis  of  the  civic  shortages  of  the  men 
and  women  who  compose  our  societies. 

169 


170  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

PRELIMINARY   ANALYSES 

1.  The  historic  means  of  social  education  employed  by 
various  school  and  non-school  agencies  have  been  almost 
numberless.   Among  them  may  be  distinguished: 

a.  Those  means  designed  to  form  in  early  years  specific 
habits,  attitudes,  sentiments,  and  the  like  by  authoritarian 
control  of  the  growth  of  the  feelings  or  so-called  emotions. 
Parental,  religious,  political,  military,  and  other  kinds  of 
authority  have  always  been  busy  kindling  in  the  spirits  of 
youth  very  specific  kinds  of  fears,  hates,  loves,  ambitions, 
conscious  scruples,  sense  of  what  is  honorable,  and  the  like. 
These  in  time  crystallize  into  the  enduring  mental  and 
moral  attitudes  which  constitute  good  or  bad  social  char- 
acter. 

b.  Parallel  with  these  have  been  the  practices  on  the 
part  of  authoritarian  agencies  of  controlling  the  formation 
of  ideas,  interpretations,  and  understandings  through  such 
specific  devices  as  precept,  belief,  dogma,  and  creed.  The 
products  of  these  educational  processes  also  crystallize  into 
fairly  fixed  elements  of  social  character. 

c.  Those  controls  and  activities  which  provide,  in  the 
environment  of  the  learner,  very  prolonged  attractive  activi- 
ties along  approved  social  lines  —  cooperations,  sociable 
associations,  property  acquisition,  personal  aggrandizement, 
and  the  like  to  such  an  extent  as  practically  to  absorb 
growth  energy  and  to  exclude  effects  of  agencies  of  con- 
flicting character.  Everywhere  is  now  recognized  the  potency 
in  moral,  civic,  or  religious  development  of  the  maintenance 
about  the  plastic  individual,  of  an  approved  social  environ- 
ment accompanieiL4)y  Jhe^siknt,  invisible  exclusion  of 
opportunities  for  disapproved  social  activities. 

d.  Those  activities  which  are  designed  to  promote,  during 
the  early  years,  enduring  personal  ideals  or  approved  goals 
of  social  behavior.    To  these  ends  are  designed  the  historic 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     171 

means  of  hero  worship,  ancestor  exaltation,  appeals  trans- 
mitted through  deities,  songs  and  stories  about  the  great 
and  good,  biographical  readings,  stimulus  of  poetry,  drama, 
and  other  art,  and  the  urgings  of  leaders  and  seers. 

e.  Those  means  which,  used  through  direct  instruction 
and  with  only  moderate  appeal  to  the  feelings,  aim  to 
give  knowledge  of,  and  insight  into,  the  structures  and 
functions  of  social  groups  and  the  events  that  give  these 
significance.  Under  this  head  would  be  included  the  great 
bulk  of  realistic  history  study,  analysis  of  governmental 
structures  and  functions,  studies  of  social  institutions,  and 
the  various  other  social  sciences  that  have  developed  in 
recent  years,  such  as  community  civics,  civil  government, 
economics,  sociology,  and  the  like. 

/.  Those  agencies  designed  to  create  relatively  artificial 
environments  and  activities  for  the  purpose  of  giving  ele- 
mental experience,  knowledge,  and  ideals  toward  certain 
of  the  less  "natural"  forms  of  social  action.  Well-known 
examples  of  these  are  the  training  methods  of  medieval 
knighthood,  the  "extra-home"  apprenticeship  of  medieval 
guilds,  the  residence  education  of  English  boarding  schools, 
together  with  a  variety  of  modern  devices  such  as  scouting, 
boys'  clubs,  school  self-government,  summer  camps,  school- 
ships,  and  the  like. 

g.  Those  which  single  out  for  the  conscious  service  of 
"young  citizens"  activities  normally  exercised  by  adults 
in  either  an  amateur  or  a  vocational  capacity.  These  include 
projects  in  policing,  guiding  of  visitors,  enforcement  of 
various  forms  of  law  and  ordinance,  street  cleaning,  road 
building,  reduction  of  fire  hazards,  improvement  of  sanita- 
tion, and  other  service  projects  of  similar  nature. 

h.  Of  somewhat  similar  purport  are  those  dramatic 
projects  in  which  learners  dramatize  various  past  or  present 
social  functions  for  the  sake  of  the  resulting  appreciations, 


172  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

understandings,  or  ideals.  Among  these  are  to  be  included 
the  dramatization  of  voting,  naturalization,  exploration, 
defense,  judicial  processes,  enforcement  of  law,  legislation, 
discharge  of  executive  offices,  and  many  others  of  similar 
nature. 

i.  Those  methods  which  single  out  for  extensive  analytical 
study,  and  perhaps  tentative  determination  of  approved 
lines  of  conduct,  problems  which  either  are  now,  or  have 
been  in  the  past,  of  acute  concern  to  adults.  Since  these 
are  still  social  problems  —  that  is,  they  involve  undetermined 
issues  of  fact  or  interpretation  —  they  usually  present  con- 
troversial features  either  of  principle,  or  of  the  application 
of  accepted  principles.  It  is  obvious  that  methods  of  civic 
education  based  upon  a  study  of  problems  are  almost  com- 
pletely opposed  to  methods  of  authoritarian  control.  Various 
approaches  to  these  problems  are  obviously  possible  accord- 
ing as  the  more  specific  or  broader  social  interests  of  the 
individual  learner  are  used  as  a  basis  of  motive.  The  naive 
and  primitive  method  is  to  approach  through  the  formula, 

"Is  it  to  my  interest  that ?"  or  the  other,  "Is  it  to 

the  interest  of  my  family,  my  party,  or  other  small  group 

that ? "   Sound  social  education  employs  larger  formulae 

such  as,  "Is  it  well  for  the  nation  that ?"  or  "Is  it 

well  for  humanity  that ?"    The  more  ethical  approach 

would  be,  "Is  it  right  that ?"  or  "Is  it  just  that ?" 

The  strictly  religious  approach  would  be  through  the  formula 
"  Is  it  the  will  of  God  that ?  " 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   COURSES 

2.  Construction  of  courses  or  programs  of  moral  and  of 
civic  education  through  schools  involves  adaptations  of  one 
or  more  of  the  above  methods.  Concrete  and  positive  ap- 
proaches to  study  of  the  application  of  these  methods  can 
only  be  based  on  analytical  studies  of  the  needs  of  known 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     173 

case  groups  of  learners  as  these  may  be  served  by  particular 
methods.  Since  wejyssess  as  yet  few  objective  criteria  for 
the  determination  oj  social  values,  substantial  programs  can 
ordinarily  be  made  only  by  obtaining  the  consensus  of 
opinion  of  well-informed  jurors  or  critics  representing  differ- 
ent points  of  view.  Even  at  the  present  time  it  would  be 
highly  desirable  to  obtain  from  a  jury  including  a  social 
psychologist,  a  practical  social  worker,  an  educator,  a  parent, 
a  minister  of  religion,  and  perhaps  an  employer,  tentative 
findings  with  reference  to  problems  like  these: 

a.  What  is  the  desirable  and  probably  effective  place 
today  of  authoritarian  formation  and  control  of  either  feeling 
attitudes  or  fixed  beliefs  with  such  age  groups  as  these: 
ages  2  to  6;  6  to  10;  10  to  14;  14  to  18;  18  to  30;  30  to  50? 
These  groups  might  be  separately  considered  as  to  persons 
of  inferior,  average,  or  superior  intelligence.  Furthermore, 
the  social  relationships  toward  which  education  by  authori- 
tarian control  is  practicable  could  be  further  differentiated 
as  to  economic,  religious,  political,  domestic,  and  martial. 
It  might,  for  example,  be  the  consensus  of  well-informed 
opinion  that  only  in  the  earlier  stages  should  authoritarian 
control  be  expected  to  dominate  political  convictions,  whereas 
at  all  stages  such  control  might  be  expected  to  dominate 
in  sex  and  martial  relations.  It  is  obvious  that  our  un- 
willingness to  have  those  of  our  beliefs  and  attitudes  that 
rest  heavily  on  feeling  discussed  or  "reasoned"  about  is 
one  good  evidence  of  their  authoritarian  origins. 

b.  Does  contemporary  experience  suggest  that  biogra- 
phies, sermons,  ancestor  exaltation,  and  other  means  cus- 
tomarily designed  to  inspire  ideals  are  largely  effective  only 
with  the  more  imaginative  minority  of  our  youths  between 
the  ages  of  6  and  102-  Would  similar  considerations  apply 
to  age  groups  between  15  and  18J 

c.  Is  it  probable  that  amateur  participation  on  the  part 


174  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

of  adolescents  in  realistically  meeting  civic  requirements  is 
successful  almost  wholly  in  proportion  to  the  employment 
of  gifted  and  magnetic  leadership?  Or  does  evidence  indicate 
that  some  of  these  means  can  be  made  educationally  profit- 
able with  only  average  leadership?  Separate  consideration 
should  here  be  given  to  such  service  activities  as  scouting, 
relief  of  distress,  school  self-government,  organized  enter- 
tainment, junior  Red  Cross  activities  in  war  time,  coopera- 
tive village  cleaning,  and  others. 

d.  Is  it  educationally  practicable  or  desirable  that  youths 
from  15  to  18  years  of  age  should  in  public  schools  debate 
and  otherwise  study  such  controversial  subjects  as  these: 
"Is  *  private  property'  (in  any  one  of  its  many  varieties) 
a  social  good?"  "Are  there  varieties  of  private  property 
that  should  be  abolished?"  "Are  negroes  equal  to  whites 
in  intelligence?"  "Is  it  right  that  in  an  area  where  negroes 
are  in  a  large  majority  they  should  be  forcibly  deprived 
of  suffrage?"  "Does  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
contain  a  number  of  archaic  provisions?"  "Should  the 
United  States  impose  obligatory  and  universal  military 
service?"  "Is  it  right  for  a  man,  complying  strictly  with 
the  law,  to  buy  for  as  little  as  he  can  and  to  sell  for  as  much 
as  he  can?"  "Are  these  policies  'right':  freedom  of  practice 
of  vivisection  in  medical  education,  capital  punishment, 
freedom  to  obtain  divorce  on  grounds  now  permitted  in 
most  states,  prohibition  of  intermarriage  of  blacks  and  whites, 
exclusion  of  Orientals,  governmental  censorship  of  plays?" 

e.  Is  it  probable  that  the  extended  study  of  the  details  of 
American  history  as  ordinarily  taught  enlightens  the  prospec- 
tive citizen  as  to  right  courses  of  civic  action  in  later  years? 

EFFECTS    OF    SCHOOL    ENVIRONMENT 

3.  Contributions  toward  civic  education  have  in  greater 
or  less  degree  always  been  made  by  historic  school  procedures 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     175 

as  well  as  the  influence  of  extra-school  agencies.  Inventive 
teachers  can  readily  find  a  number  of  special  problems  in 
civic  education  like  the  following  which  will  abundantly 
repay  study: 

a.  Endeavor  to  analyze  the  permanently  socializing  effects 
of  several  kinds  of  school  discipline,  ranging  from  autocratic 
to  democratic  self-government.  Give  separate  consideration 
to  each  sex  and  at  various  age  levels  such  as  4  to  6,  6  to  10, 
10  to  14,  and  14  to  18.  Perhaps  further  social  analysis 
would  be  worth  while,  as,  for  example,  between  urban  and 
rural  children,  between  children  of  low  and  children  of 
high,  intelligence  ratings,  and  between  classes  from  different 
types  of  environment. 

b.  Trace  the  establishment  of  purposes,  standards,  social 
values,  and  general  ideals  through  the  personal  attitudes 
and  interpretations  of  life  reflected  by  teachers.  Common 
experience  attaches  much  value  to  the  example  and  personal 
influence  of  teachers  on  the  appreciations  and  ideals  of  the 
young.  Analytical  study  here  could  well  afford  to  consider 
particular  results,  in  such  fields  as  manners,  specific  con- 
ventions, lifeTcareer  ideals,  political  attitudes,  and  philan- 
thropic aspirations. 

c.  Study  of  the  creation,  expansion,  or  modification  of 
attitudes  and  ideals  through  school-controlled  activities  in 
studies  and  in  voluntary  group  performances.  It  is  widely 
believed  that  such  studies  as  history,  literature,  and  music 
can  be  utilized,  and  are  under  some  circumstances  actually 
now  utilized,  for  the  formation  of  various  specific  social 
ideals  or  attitudes.  Similar  results  are  believed  to  flow 
largely  from  good  activities  of  a  more  or  less  voluntary 
nature  through  clubs,  athletics,  fraternities,  and  the  like. 
To  have  value,  studies  here  should  as  far  as  possible  differ- 
entiate particular  qualities,  such  as  respect  for  law,  humane 
treatment  of  animals,  ambition  for  financial  success,  desire 


176  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

for  leadership,  aspirations  for  right  forms  of  cooperation, 
and  the  like. 

d.  Study  of  the  social  effects  on  character  and  behavior 
due  to  intellectual  enlightenment  as  to  political  and  other 
social  functions  attained  through  the  study  of  civics,  current 
history,  and  other  didactic  means.  There  still  exists  much 
doubt  as  to  how  far  intellectual  enlightenment  contributes 
to  social  behavior  where  impelling  motives  are  not  aroused. 
This  entire  subject  needs  elucidation.  One  phase  of  it  is 
perhaps  especially  important  at  present;  namely  that 
which  has  to  do  with  the  interpretation  of  civic  and  other 
social  action  in  terms  of  the  self-interest  or  local  group 
interest  of  the  individual  himself.  It  is  well  known  that 
study  of  history  is  constantly  being  used  as  a  means  of 
furthering  the  ends  of  those  promoting  nationalistic  aspira- 
tions, party  solidarity,  and  religious  adherence. 

e.  What  are  the  effects  of  realistic  participation  project 
activities?  Many  of  these  were  made  functional  during  the 
war,  and  their  effects  upon  civic  behavior  ought  to  be  in 
part  now  discernible.  Similar  studies  are  needed  of  the 
effects  of  dramatic  activities,  including  festivals  and  com- 
memorations, which  have  been  so  widely  used  in  recent 
years.  Studies  here  should  also  be  carefully  differentiated 
according  to  age  levels  and  possibly  other  bases  of  analysis. 

/.  To  what  extent  have  schools  been  successful  in  recent 
years  in  stimulating  the  formation  of,  and  entering  into 
cooperation  with,  extra-school  activities  —  in  scouting, 
boys'  clubs,  social  centers,  sports,  vacation  activities,  library 
reading,  special  summer  reading,  discriminating  use  of  the 
photo  drama,  and  the  like?  No  one  can  doubt  that  these 
activities  make  important  contributions  to  moral  and  civic 
education*  To  some  extent  their  quality  and  scope  can  be 
effected  through  and  by  school  agencies%  But  the  means 
and  effects  of  such  cooperations  should  be  surveyed  and 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     177 

evaluated  if  we  are  to  have  other  than  faiths  as  foundations 
of  programs. 

g.  There  is  also  needed  analytical  study  of  the  effects 
of  teaching  current  social  problems  to  prospective  voters. 
In  a  few  schools  the  study  of  ethics  has  brought  learners 
into  close  grips  with  various  moral  and  other  social  problems, 
and  the  effects  of  the  methods  employed  are  now  in  need 
of  analysis  and  evaluation. 

SOURCES   IN    SOCIAL   PRACTICES    OF   ADULTS 

4.  The  social  standards  governing  educational  objectives 
in  civic  education  are  to  be  derived  primarily  from  a  study 
of  the  adult  society  in  which  the  learner  now  abides  and 
toward  more  complete  and  responsible  functioning  in  which 
he  is  now  being  .trained.  The  following  are  among  the  con- 
siderations that  would  affect  means  and  methods  of  in- 
struction :      **~ 

a.  In  its  more  essential  features,  civic  education  must  aim 
at  producing  in  the  learner  enduring  habits  and  convictions 
toward  those  social  ends  as  to  which  a  majority  of  adults 
are  in  substantial  agreement.  It  is  sometimes  urged  that 
civic  education  should,  in  all  areas  where  some  uncertainty 
prevails,  aim  to  produce  appreciations  of  the  "right"  social 
values  even  though  approved  perhaps  as  yet  only  by  a 
minority*  Most  proposals  to  this  end  are  futile  and  any 
definite  procedure  to  carry  them  out  would  necessarily  be 
frustrated  by  majority  opinion.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  democracy  invariably  means,  in  practice,  government 
by  majorities,  and  the  execution  of  educational  policies 
from  this  point  of  view  is  simply  one  function  of  government. 

But  in  all  fields  where  parties  divide,  where  debatable 
issues  appear,  it  could  well  be  a  function  of  disinterested 
teaching  to  lead  learners  into  an  analysis  of  the  various 
contentions  involved.    Only  very  high-grade  instruction  can 


178  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

avoid  giving  the  appearance  of  making  proselytes  or  of 
leaning  to  the  one  rather  than  the  other  side  in  partisan 
issues.  In  the  strongest  American  colleges  much  progress 
has  recently  been  made  in  having  students  study  various 
aspects  of  controversial  matters.  With  more  competent 
leadership  we  shall  certainly  be  able  to  follow  their  example 
in  secondary  schools. 

b.  The  various  feeling  attitudes  —  beliefs,  faiths,  senti- 
ments, prejudices,  admirations,  aspirations,  and  the  like  — 
are  much  more  largely  formed  under  the  influence  of  domi- 
nant personalities  on  the  one  hand,  and  group  opinion  of 
approved  associates,  on  the  other,  than  through  direct  in- 
struction. Among  these  dominant  personalities  strong  and 
approved  teachers  can  play  a  part,  but  extravagant  expect- 
ancies as  to  teachers'  influence  should  not  be  cherished, 
since  there  are  many  factors  that  lead  to  intellectual  and 
moral  dominance  of  the  young  other  than  school  education, 
and  the  position  and  the  benevolent  intentions  of  teachers. 

c.  Intellectual  analysis  of  some  social  problems  seems  to 
be  easily  procurable  from  adolescents,  provided  these  prob- 
lems embody  those  issues  of  right  and  wrong  that,  because 
of  their  environment  or  prominent  social  instincts,  make 
realistic  appeal  to  the  sympathies  and  imaginations  of 
youths  of  this  age.  In  favorable  environments  problems  like 
these  can  easily  command  sustained  attention,  energetic 
analysis,  and  strongly  partisan  debate:  Is  it  right  or  wrong- 
that  poor  men  should  be  required  to  pay  taxes;  that  striking 
motormen  should  stop  car  service;  that  men  should  be  con- 
scripted as  soldiers  against  their  will;  that  any  one  man 
should  have  an  income  of  $1,000,000  a  year?  These  and 
hundreds  of  others  like  them  can  be  easily  introduced  into 
any  area  of  civic  and  moral  education.  Whether  experience 
will  show  that  good  educational  results  follow  the  kinds 
of  analysis  of  behavior  and  ethical  principles  involved  is 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     179 

still  an  open  question.  Where  prepossessions  have  not 
been  strongly  formed  in  the  learner  through  consideration 
of  his  personal  interests  or  the  interests  of  his  relatives  or 
other  associates,  the  intellectual  approaches  to  these  prob- 
lems, as  they  may  be  fostered  by  wise  teachers,  can  easily 
be  made  to  produce  abiding  convictions,  sentiments,  and 
even  ideals  which  will  endure  -when  in  later  life  appeals 
to  self-interest  or  to  small  group  interests  develop.  On  the 
other  hand,  especially  under  poor  teaching,  partisanship  may 
be  made  more  intense,  and  certain  weapons  of  discussion 
may  be  acquired  which  will  render  the  individual  more, 
rather  than  less,  formidable  as  a  defender  of  wrong  ideals 
or  practices. 

d.  It  is  doubtful,  in  the  light  of  experience,  if  students 
in  general,  in  adolescent  years,  will  find  effective  interests 
in  studying  the*^  anatomy  or  structure  of  governmental 
machinery  or  that  of  other  social  mechanisms  related  to 
political  or  other  big  group  action,  such  as  party  organiza- 
tion, means -of  propaganda,  evaluation  of  policies,  etc. 

GENERAL   PRINCIPLES   OF   METHOD 

5.  General  principles  of  method  applicable  in  other  fields 
of  education  may  be  expected  to  apply  in  civic  education. 
The  following  are  important  considerations : 

a,  With  a  few  exceptions,  moral  and  civic  development 
and  training  require  that  we  proceed  from  the  concrete 
tq_the__al)stract,  from  the  particular  to  the  general,  from 
the  near  to  the  remote,  from  the  immediately  significant  to 
the  ultimately  significant,  no  less  than  in  other  fields  of 
education.  Exceptions  are  found  in  certain  areas  where 
powerful,  even  though  diffused,  instincts  may  be  kindled, 
or  even  profoundly  inflamed,  by  a  single  act,  suggestion, 
or  other  stimulus  (within  areas  of  such  "instinct  masses" 
as  those  of  parental  affection,  fear  of  social  disapproval, 


180  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

fear  of  non-visible  deities,  sex  modesty,  defense  of  kinship 
group,  property  holding,  racial  or  unlike  group  antagonisms, 
etc.). 

b.  That  in  the  fields  of  moral  and  civic  education  the 
fallacies  of  "formal  discipline'  are  just  as  common,  and 
just  now  far  more  influential,  than  in  what  we  characterize 
as  "intellectual "  education.  We  still  talk  of  teaching  loyalty, 
forgetting  that  there  are  many  species  of  loyalty,  sometimes 
in  deadly  opposition  to  each  other.  We  talk  as  though 
it  were  possible  by  some  simple  and  even  single-pointed 
process  to  teach  such  very  composite  and  heterogeneous 
virtues  as  "honesty,."  "regard  for  public  property,"  "co- 
operation," "service  giving/'  etc. 

But  we  are  still  not  clear  as  to  how  far  aspirations,  appre- 
ciations, and  ideals  —  involving  large  feeling  qualities  —  may 
not  be  generalized  by  a  few  concrete  cases,  even  where 
understandings  and  habits  of  action  are  limited.  Here  we 
need  more  examination  of  Professor  Bagley's  contention  as 
to  the  "spread"  of  ideals. 

In  former  times  when  the  principle  of  moral  authority 
dominated  nearly  all  forms  of  moral  and  civic  training, 
comparatively  simple  methods  of  educational  procedure  were 
practicable  and  effective.  These  included:  appeals  to  fear 
through  corporal  punishment,  threat  of  hell  fire,  and  ostra- 
cism; appeals  to  faith  and  beliefs,  through  concrete  dogmas, 
precepts,  laws,  divine  injunctions,  and  kingly  pronounce- 
ments; officers'  commands;  use  of  specific  disciplines,  un- 
questionably submitted  to,  as  in  armies,  seminaries,  courts, 
shops,  schools,  churches,  families;  and  general  taboos  against 
inquisitive  questioning  or  beginnings  of  the  scientific  atti- 
tude where  issues  of  importance  (or  so  believed  by  those 
exerting  authority)  were  involved. 

But  only  in  very  limited  areas  of  modern  civilized  life, 
where  persons  over  10  or  12  years  of  age  are  concerned, 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     181 

are  completely  authoritarian  methods  of  education  practi- 
cable, even  if  they  are  desirable.  The  social  environment 
of  the  adolescent  is  too  full  of  counter-suggestion  against 
authority,  for  one  thing.  The  scientific  spirit  among  the 
competent  adults  of  the  time  finds  its  derivatives  (often 
counterfeits,  but  none  the  less  "current"  and  widely  ac- 
cepted as  "legal  tender"  on  that  account)  among  the  mob, 
the  slave,  even  the  "gang  fellow"  of  12.  These  take  pride 
in  questioning  authority,  arguing  about  fundamentals,  and 
insisting  that  they  "must  be  shown." 

Educators  must  decide  in  what  social  areas,  if  any,  methods 
based  on  principles  of  direct  authority  are  still  valid.  We 
agree  that  they  still  hold  with  very  young  children  as  last 
resort;  with  soldiers  in  time  of  national  need;  and  in  courts 
and  prisons  for  those  who  have  forfeited  certain  rights  of 
free  action.  Where  else? 

Probably  we  are  right  in  preserving  methods  based  on  the 
principle  of  authority  in  certain  matters  of  sex  relationship; 
in  reference  to  murder  and  other  overt  invasions  of  personal 
security;  and  in  reference  to  direct  and  consciously  predatory 
invasions  of  property  rights.  But  beyond  these?  Here 
sociologists,  humanitarians,  and  educators  are  under  obliga- 
tion to  get  together. 

The  boy  scout  movement  has,  for  certain  types  of  moral, 
ideal,  and  habitual  practice,  probably  the  most  effective 
pedagogy  now  available  in  social  education.  Its  combination 
of  concrete  practices  (in  preparation  for  promotions,  appeals 
to  manly  ideals  of  action,  history  of  scouting),  inculcation 
of  general  standards  in  very  definite  form  (scout  law),  and 
use  of  virile  leadership  (patrol  leaders,  captains)  produce 
a  wonderfully  efficient  machinery  of  moral  and  civic  educa- 
tion for  certain  areas  of  population  and  types  of  social 
behavior.  But  the  mistake  must  not  be  made  of  assuming 
that  scouting  can  be  effective  for  all  classes;  or  in  producing 


182  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

more  than  a  limited  number  of  civic  virtues;  or  in  being 
capable  of  proper  development  or  maintenance  otherwise 
than  under  devoted,  voluntary,  unpaid  adult  leadership. 

Subject  to  these  considerations,  scouting  pedagogy  has 
much  to  teach  us  as  to  concrete  means  and  methods  of 
civic  education,  when  once  we  shall  have  defined  a  series 
of  specific  objectives. 

For  some  purposes  we  can  also  procure  valuable  sugges- 
tions as  to  means  and  methods  from:  military  education; 
summer  camps  for  boys;  young  people's  church  societies; 
juvenile  courts  and  their  attendant  reform  and  parole  sys- 
tems; boys'  clubs  in  cities;  boys'  farm  clubs;  self-governing 
schools,  including  self-directed  sports;  vocational  schools,  etc. 

SPECIFIC   OBJECTIVES 

6.  Specific  objectives  must  be  defined  before  we  can  expect 
to  develop  adequate  means  and  methods  of  realizing  them. 
As  heretofore  shown,  the  entire  field  of  civic  education  is  still 
very  much  underdeveloped  as  regards  specific  objectives. 
Any  analysis  of  specific  objectives  will  almost  inevitably 
be,  first  of  all,  qualitative  —  that  which  has  heretofore  been 
designated  as  "analysis  into  strands."  Without  quantitative 
analysis,  however,  added  to  qualitative,  it  will  be  impractica- 
ble to  develop  satisfactory  school  programs.  We  must  know 
not  only  what  kind  of  social  virtue  we  desire  to  produce 
through  a  specific  process  but  the  extent  of  it  or  the  degree 
of  its  intensiveness  that  we  consider  desirable  and  practicable, 
taking  account  as  well  of  the  educability  of  the  individual 
as  of  the  needs  of  society. 

It  has  been  shown  before  that  one  of  the  most  economical 
as  well  as  scientific  methods  of  determining  what  should 
be  held  as  the  most  important  specific  objectives  of  civic 
education  involves  ascertaining  as  accurately  as  practicable 
the  probable  civic  deficiencies  at  age  25-40  of  those  who 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     183 

are  now  boys  and  girls  of  14-16.  What,  for  example,  would 
three  experts  in  social  science  agree  on  as  the  probable 
expected  deficiencies  at  ages  25-40  of  the  morally  best  one 
fourth  of  100  boys  and  girls  14-16  now  in  high  school,  as  to: 

a.  Respect  for  rights  of  neighbors  of  equal  social  level 
to  life  (against  murder)  ? 

b.  Respect  for  rights  of  distant  and  (supposedly)  inferior 
strangers  to  life  (murder  of  Mexicans,  Indians,  coal  miners, 
"Dagos,"  etc.)? 

c.  Respect  for  rights  of  strong  neighbors  to  property 
where  "taking"  would  have  to  be  undisguised  —  burglary, 
stealing,  robbery,  etc.? 

d.  Same,  where  "taking"  could  be  disguised,  as  sales  of 
bad  mining  stocks,  fraud,  etc.? 

e.  Same  as  (c)  where  neighbors  are  weak  physically  or 
otherwise  —  widows,  orphans,  men  of  inferior  understanding? 

/.  Respect  for  rights  of  property  of  despised  strangers, 
where  predatory  arts  may  be  concealed  from  one's  asso- 
ciates (the  "smokeless"  sin  of  E.  A.  Ross)? 

g.   Hundreds  of  others  could  be  supplied. 

What  may  be  expected  in  the  above  respects  of  the  morally 
least  good  one  fourth  of  the  class?  the  other  fourths? 

Analysis  of  the  kinds  suggested  above  will  probably  show 
that  as  respects  establishing  certain  virtues  —  abstaining 
from  murder  of  neighbors,  and  many  others  —  the  school 
need  put  forth  little  effort.  By-education  of  family,  com- 
munity life,  and  church  has  sufficed.  But  as  respects  many 
other  —  and  often  less  tangible  —  virtues  the  school  must 
take  large  responsibility. 

For  example,  in  time  of  national  danger  we  all  constitute 
ourselves  social  agencies  toward  inspiring  and  giving  focal 
objectives  to  "large  group"  patriotism;  but  in  times  of 
peace  these  agencies  are  quiescent,  hence  the  school  should 
now  be  most  active  in  creating  the  aspirations  and  focusing 


184  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

the  intentions  and  actual  or  potential  performances  that 
will  function  as  approved  patriotism,  either  internal  in 
times  of  peace,  or  external  in  time  of  foreign  aggression. 

CIVIC   PROGNOSIS 

7.  Civic  prognosis  will  eventually  constitute  a  basic 
means  of  determining  specific  objectives  not  only  for  civic 
but  for  other  forms  of  education.  Without  the  specific 
instruction  and  training  we  propose  to  give,  the  children 
of  today  would  develop  into  men  and  women  with  fairly 
predictable  qualities  of  civic  character,  due  to  the  operation 
of  various  social  forces.  Through  "prognosis"  of  this  sort 
it  should  be  practicable  to  define  the  most  evident  "civic 
shortages"  or  defects  toward  the  prevention  or  lessening  of 
which  specific  school  effort  should  first  of  all  be  directed. 
The  "case  group"  method  of  approach,  together  with 
analytical  inquiries,  can  again  be  illustrated: 

a.  Case  Group  A.  Boys  graduating  from  American  high 
schools,  in  urban  or  suburban  communities,  possess  in  large 
measure  the  following  common  characteristics:  they  are 
above  the  average  of  the  population  of  their  own  age  in 
native  abilities  and  in  cultural  effects  of  environment;  they 
are  good  "mixers"  and  are  ambitious;  they  have  a  consider- 
able number  of  very  definite  social  appreciations  (valuations) 
and  social  conventions  (of  their  set);  their  moral  behavior 
is  fairly  good  and  their  expressed  moral  ideals  fairly  low, 
as  judged  by  adults  of  35-50  years  of  age;  they  have  good 
health;  they  work  well  in  pursuit  of  ends  which  appeal  to 
them  as  "worth  while";  and  they  have  little  respect  for 
authority  on  its  own  account. 

What  will  probably  be  the  good  and  the  bad  civic  qualities 
respectively  in  the  total  citizenship  of  these  youths  when 
they  are  from  30  to  50  years  of  age,  judging  from  social 
experience,  as  respects: 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     185 

(a)  Conformity  to  laws  in  general,  whether  helpful  or 
adverse  to  their  personal  interests  (respect  for  laws  as 
such)  ? 

(b)  Conformity  to  laws  which  may  seem  to  affect  their 
personal  interests  adversely,  including  tax-paying? 

(c)  Helpful  or  indifferent  attitude  toward  invasion  of 
rights  of  persons  or  groups  outside  their  spheres  of  acquaint- 
anceship and  with  different  interests  and  traditions? 

(d)  Systematic  "complaisant"  sharing  in  activities  of 
political  parties  and  easy  conformity  to  "party"  standards 
even  when  these  tend  toward  group  selfishness? 

(e)  Systematic  sharing  in  "party"  activities,  accom- 
panied by  persistent  disposition  to  enlarge  and  improve 
party  objectives  and  standards? 

(/)  Disposition  toward  independent  or  "nonconformist" 
individual  action  on  political  issues  and  with  small  regard 
for  cooperation  with  others  either  (1)  in  revolt,  or  (2)  in 
constructive  action? 

(g)  Disposition  toward  action  independent  of  older  par- 
ties, accompanied  by  ambitions  to  lead  in  forming  new 
groups,  or  starting  new  "movements"? 

(h)  Regard  for  "property  rights"  of  distant  and  "infe- 
rior" persons? 

(i)  Self-sacrificing  participation  in  primaries,  informal 
censuses,  voting,  and  "follow-up"  scrutiny  of  work  of 
public  officials? 

(j)    Volunteering  service  in  time  of  war? 

(k)  Competency  in  the  appreciative  valuation  of  public 
works  —  roads,  schools,  health  service? 

(Many  other  specific  attitudes  can  be  predicted.) 

b.  Other  case  groups  can  readily  be  analyzed :  for  exam- 
ple :  Case  Group  B  —  boys  two  or  more  grades  retarded  at  age 
14,  and  probably  destined  to  leave  school  soon;  Case  Group  C 
—  girls  intellectually  able,  remaining  in  high  school  until  16, 


186  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

but  forced  then  by  family  circumstances,  or  induced  by 
strong  desires  for  independent  income,  to  become  wage 
earners. 

c.  Two  contrasted  groups,  A  and  B,  in  schools  of  a  city 
of  100,000,  may  be  studied  through  the  same  approaches: 

Group  A  consists  of  1000  boys  aged  14  to  15,  of  good 
native  abilities,  prosperous  families,  good  home  environ- 
ment, successful  school  records.  Will  probably  go  through 
high  school,  then  into  general  or  vocational  college  or  into 
"business." 

Group  B  consists  of  1000  boys  aged  14  to  15,  leaving 
elementary  school  on  "working  papers"  when  attendance 
laws  permit.  They  have  average  or  low  intellectual  abilities 
as  shown  in  school  studies.  Many  are  retarded.  Nearly 
all  will  enter  juvenile  employments  without  vocational  train- 
ing and  will  advance  to  adult  employment  via  road  of 
"pick-up"  vocational  education. 

Using  your  personal  experience  as  a  basis,  submit  opinions 
on  the  following  points  as  to  expected  citizenship  of  above 
groups  at  30-50: 

(a)  Will  Group  A  or  Group  B  yield  the  larger  number 
of  "good"  citizens  in  the  absolute  sense  —  that  is,  quite 
without  reference  to  respective  opportunities,  etc.? 

(b)  Will  Group  A  or  Group  B  yield  more  good  citizens 
as  these  might  be  judged  by  respective  abilities,  opportuni- 
ties, and  the  like?  (The  parable  of  the  talents  should  be 
applied.  Should  we  expect  of  each  group  civic  "fruit" 
according  to  potential  powers?) 

(c)  Will  Group  A  or  Group  B  give  the  greater  number 
of  legislators;  labor  leaders;  business  leaders;  writers  and 
publicists;  educators;  "reformers";  "agitators"? 

(d)  Will  Group  A  or  Group  B  give  the  greater  number 
of  convicts  (crimes  of  violence) ;  convicts  (defaulters,  forgers, 
etc.);  "profiteers"  or  unscrupulous  monopolists;  vagrants; 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     187 

drug  addicts  and  drunkards;  unscrupulous  strikers  in  labor 
troubles? 

(e)  Will  Group  A  or  Group  B  give  the  greater  number 
of  good  "conforming"  citizens,  anxious  to  obey  all  laws, 
unwilling  to  find  fault,  protest,  or  threaten  to  revolt? 

(J)  Which  group  will  furnish  the  greater  number  of 
persons  who  in  time  of  great  national  danger  will  say:  "My 
country  —  may  she  be  ever  right;  but,  right  or  wrong,  my 
country!" 

(g)  Which  group  will  be  so  tenacious  of  their  conceptions 
of  right  that  they  will  try  to  block  social  action  to  argue 
or  promote  their  particular  ends? 

(h)  Which  group  will  give  the  greater  number  who  "will 
have  nothing  to  lose  even  if  the  government  fails  or  the 
nation  is  conquered"? 

(?')  Which  group  will  provide  more  of  those  who  would 
"rather  be  different  than  right"? 

(j)  In  so  far  as  good  citizenship  is  probably  due  to  school 
education,  what  will  have  been  the  most  important  sources  in 
specific  studies  and  disciplines  for  the  two  groups,  respectively? 

(k)  In  so  far  as  good  citizenship  is  due  to  reading  after 
age  20,  what  will  have  been  the  principal  sources  for  the 
two  groups,  respectively? 

(I)  In  so  far  as  good  citizenship  is  due  to  affiliations 
with  purposive  social  groups  (political,  economic,  religious, 
cultural),  what  will  have  been  the  principal  sources  for  the 
two  groups? 

MEANS   AND   METHODS   CLASSIFIED 

1.  The  means  and  methods  of  civic  education  now  em- 
ployed by  schools  can  profitably  be  classified  into  seven 
principal  divisions : 

a.  Discipline,  including  both  the  oligarchic  and  demo- 
cratic types. 


188  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

b.  History  studies. 

c.  Didactic  civics,  economics,  and  other  social  sciences. 

d.  Social  service  projects. 

e.  Dramatic  projects. 

/.    Developmental  readings. 

g.    Social  science  problems. 

2.  Distinction  of  alpha  and  beta  objectives  in,  or  within, 
each  of  these  fields  is  important  especially  from  the  stand- 
point of  most  effective  method.  The  chief  considerations 
to  be  noted  here  are: 

a.  Much  of  the  formal,  purposive  discipline  of  school- 
room, school  building,  and  school  grounds  may  properly 
be  regarded  as  important  for  projective  rather  than  develop- 
mental ends.  It  is  part  of  a  system  of  positive  training 
based  upon  concretely  projected  standards. 

The  self-discipline  of  any  school  group  in  sports,  cliques, 
and  other  naturalistic  social  manifestations  can  better  be 
regarded  as  developmental.  Under  this  head  might  well  be 
included  the  more  democratic  forms  of  school  self-govern- 
ment and  other  cooperative  activities  inspired  rather  than 
enforced  through  school  authorities. 

School  self-government  in  some  of  its  most  effective  forms 
can  well  be  included  under  the  head  of  developmental 
projects  rather  than  discipline,  since  its  educational  value 
comes  to  surpass  in  importance  its  immediate  utility  as  a 
means  of  maintaining  order. 

b.  History  studies  as  now  carried  on  in  our  schools  mani- 
festly contribute  to  the  ends  both  of  cultural  and  of  social 
education.  Unfortunately  no  satisfactory  distinctions  in 
materials  or  methods  have  yet  been  made  to  correspond  to 
these  diversities  of  aim. 

History  studies  should  also  be  clearly  differentiated  into 
their  projective  and  developmental  phases  if  choice  of  means 
and  methods  is  to  be  worth  while.    Obviously,  in  any  field 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     189 

of  history  studied,  there  are  some  facts  of  dates,  characters, 
events,  and  general  findings  that  should  be  so  studied  and 
incorporated  into  memory  that  in  later  years  recall  will 
be  easy  and  fairly  complete  comprehension  will  be  persistent. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  much  historical  material  — 
pictures,  fiction,  poetry,  song,  biographies,  numberless  nar- 
ratives, and  the  like,  that  may  prove  very  interesting  and 
"nurtural"  as  reading  but  which  need  not  necessarily  con- 
tribute to  what  are  here  called  the  projective  objectives 
of  civic  education. 

The  application  of  the  project  method  in  civic  education, 
utilizing  contemporary  problems  interpreted  in  part  through 
historical  antecedents  and  parallels,  properly  belongs  under 
the  project  method.  In  some  cases  the  ends  held  in  view 
in  this  work  should  be  of  a  definitely  projective  character. 

The  materials  of  contemporary  current  history  should  be 
regarded  as  rather  of  a  developmental  than  a  projective 
character. 

c.  "Didactic  method"  as  the  phrase  is  here  used  is 
intended  to  designate  those  methods  of  instruction  based 
upon  direct  "telling"  or  other  forthright  conveyance  of 
knowledge.  Nearly  all  well-known  textbooks  in  geography, 
history,  hygiene,  economics,  and  civil  government  use  almost 
exclusively  the  didactic  method.  They  state  in  very  much 
condensed  language  and  by  means  of  positive  affirmation 
what  the  student  is  expected  to  "learn."  Sometimes  these 
didactic  presentations  are  colored  or  flavored  by  means  of 
pictures,  anecdotes,  illustrative  descriptions,  and  even  a  few 
questions;  but  all  these  are  usually  incidental  to  the  more 
formal  method. 

By  way  of  contrast  it  should  be  remembered  that  arith- 
metic, drawing,  industrial  arts,  and  music  are  taught  in  the 
main  by  other  than  didactic  methods  as  here  defined;  and 
that  a  large  part  of  recent  progress  in  the  teaching  of  science 


190  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

and  English  language  has  been  directly  away  from  that 
method.  The  "project  method"  now  favored  in  the  lower 
grades  is,  obviously,  a  very  great  departure  from  the  didactic. 
All  studies  employing  didactic  methods  are  here  assumed 
to  be  based  upon  well-defined  projective  objectives. 

d.  A  project  is  here  understood  to  involve  two  primary 
qualities:  (1)  It  is  a  discrete  job  —  that  is,  a  separate  or 
detached  enterprise  or  undertaking  —  in  which  the  primary 
purposes  in  the  mind  of  the  learner  might  simply  be  the 
obtaining  of  desirable  experience  or  the  performance  of 
desirable  activities.  (2)  As  a  by-product  at  least,  if  not  as 
a  conscious  purpose,  the  teacher  has  in  mind  the  contribu- 
tions to  specific  ends  of  education  of  the  experience  thus 
obtained. 

Ordinarily  most  service  projects  should  be  classified  as 
developmental.  Many  examples  of  these  can  be  had  from 
scouting,  school-initiated  relief  work,  and  the  like.  Projec- 
tive ends  to  be  served  are  rarely  clearly  defined.  They 
contribute  to  the  development  of  rich  and  vital  experience 
which  in  some  composite  way  is  assumed  to  be  valuable 
in  adult  life,  but  the  specific  contributions  of  which  cannot 
be  defined. 

e.  Dramatic  projects.  Even  more  true  is  this  of  dramatic 
projects,  a  large  variety  of  which  have  in  recent  years  been 
introduced  into  the  earlier  grades  and  some  of  which  may 
be  well  adapted  to  higher  grades. 

/.  Developmental  readings,  including  stories  told  by  the 
teacher,  constitute  a  category  designed  to  include  all  reading 
stimulated  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  giving  civic  ideals, 
appreciations,  or  insights.  Here  belong  hero  tales,  biogra- 
phies, stories  of  nations,  graphic  readings,  accounts  of  other 
peoples,  and,  for  older  pupils,  descriptions  of  cooperative 
enterprises  for  rural  dwellers,  of  clean  city  movements,  of 
campaigns  to  rid  towns  of  bosses.   Here  also  belongs  the 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     191 

wealth  of  modern  fiction  dealing  with  recent  or  contemporary 
"battles"  for  good  government.  Obviously,  all  the  objec- 
tives here  controlling  are  developmental. 

g.  Social  science  problems  are  here  designed  to  include  a 
wide  range  of  civic  problems  adapted  to  the  various  age 
groups.  These  are  expected  to  be  based  upon  environmental 
experience  as  far  as  practicable,  but  nevertheless  in  many 
cases  they  will  involve  problems  that  will  actually  be  en- 
countered for  practical  solution  only  in  the  adult  life  of  the 
citizen.  Many  of  these  problems  are  now  no  less  economic 
than  political  in  the  sense  that  they  rest  on  economic  foun- 
dations but  require  political  solutions.  In  selection  and 
treatment  these  problems  should  be  determined  by  the 
considerations  that  characterize  projective  objectives. 

SCHOOL   DISCIPLINE   AS   A   MEANS   OF   CIVIC   EDUCATION 

"Small  group"  social  contacts  and  activities  fill  the 
waking  hours  of  children  in  their  early  years.  For  purposes 
of  security,  nurture,  rest,  and  consolation  any  child's  life 
is  centripetal  to  the  household;  but  for  purposes  of  many 
kinds  of  experience,  adventure,  play,  sociability  with  equals, 
and  education  it  is  largely  centrifugal  as  regards  the  home. 
The  home  is  an  intensive  agency  of  socialization,  but  its 
influence  weakens  as  age  and  mobility  make  possible  or 
necessary  wider  ranges  of  flight  for  the  young.  Other  agen- 
cies then  impose  their  respective  varieties  of  social  control  — 
the  "neighborhood,"  the  street  or  countryside  "gang,"  the 
police  power,  the  church,  and  the  school. 

Each  of  these  agencies  exerts  its  own  forms  of  discipline, 
all  of  which  are  definitely  socializing,  sometimes  on  a  "small 
group"  basis  (often  antisocial  to  "large  group"  interests, 
be  it  noted)  and  some  of  which  contribute  qualities  of 
adult  civism.  But  because  these  agencies  seldom  consciously 
address  themselves  to  the  task  of  preparing  youth  for  adult 


192  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

citizenship,  numberless  improvements  in  their  processes  are 
possible  where  it  is  found  practicable  to  subordinate,  even 
slightly,  immediate  ends  of  control  to  more  remote  and  more 
specifically  civic  ones.  Gang  cooperation  can  under  some 
conditions  be  expanded  into  scouting;  school  control  can 
become  self-government;  church  clubs  can  be  induced  to 
undertake  service  projects;  police  oversight  can  work  into 
educative  parole  and  probation;  and  even  the  home  can 
cooperate  through  various  redirections  of  its  controls  and 
suggestions. 

The  home  is  practically  the  sole  agency  of  social  education 
of  normally  circumstanced  children  up  to  4  years  of  age. 
Nearly  all  of  the  child's  time  is  spent  under  its  immediate 
control.  Its  direct  influence  also  extends  to  such  extra-home 
contacts  as  children  of  this  age  make  with  neighbors.  Most 
of  the  appreciations,  knowledge,  and  habits  thus  formed 
are  moral  rather  than  civic.  Improvements  of  home  social 
control  are  usually  to  be  accomplished  through  advances 
in  the  education  of  potential  mothers,  partly  as  one  ob- 
jective of  civic  education  for ,  parenthood  (still  a  shadowy 
ideal),  and  partly  by  definite  training  of  the  young  woman 
for  the  vocation  of  homemaking  (an  ideal  now  rapidly 
taking  shape  under  experimental  efforts  of  many  institu- 
tions). 

From  4  to  6  the  social  development  of  most  children  not 
attending  school  is  not  qualitatively  unlike  that  of  the  two 
earlier  years,  except  that  the  matter  of  adjustments  to  play 
groups  becomes  more  complicated  and  in  turn  educative  — 
for  good  or  for  bad. 

The  school  introduces  new  factors,  however.  This  agency 
insures  social  groupings  of  considerable  size,  with  the  at- 
tendant needs  of  complex  disciplinary  control.  It  has  long- 
been  a  part  of  the  theory  of  kindergarten  education  that 
a  variety  of  social  appreciations,  attitudes,  and  even  ideals 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION      193 

could  be  instilled  at  this  time  that  will  be  of  functional 
value  throughout  life.  These  theories  still  need  careful 
psychological  examination.  Their  various  implications,  often 
expressed  in  aspirational  writings,  may  be  largely  lacking 
in  validity.  In  higher  schools  the  maintenance  of  school 
order  has  usually  been  conceived  as  a  means  to  educative 
ends  —  rather  than  as  itself  an  educative  means. 

Certain  specific  socializing  functions  of  the  kindergarten, 
as  well  as  sometimes  of  other  schools,  are  easily  recognized 
where  children  from  homes  in  socially  low-grade  environ- 
ment are  given  from  400  to  1000  hours  per  year  of  whole- 
some surroundings  in  kindergarten  or  higher  school  groups. 
Lonely  children  in  "one  child"  families  whose  standards 
preclude  free  street  association  also  obtain  needed  com- 
panionship in  the  "select"  kindergarten. 

It  is  readily  obvious  that  the  bringing  together  of  from 
half  a  dozen  to  some  hundreds  of  children  or  youths  of 
ages  6  to  18  for  purposes  of  education  necessitates  at  once 
the  creation  of  special  machinery  of  social  control.  What 
are  the  essential  characteristics  of  this  control?  And  what 
are  its  possible  "carry-over"  products  toward  adult  citizen- 
ship? These  are  two  important  questions  of  social  education. 

At  present  we  can  only  say  that  the  characteristics  and 
controls  of  school  life  have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  ana- 
lyzed and  described  from  the  sociological  viewpoint.  It  is 
evident,  of  course,  that  school  groupings  are  relatively  arti- 
ficial when  tested  by  the  "natural"  social  instincts;  that 
children  are  forced  into  them  by  will  of  parents,  teachers, 
and  other  representatives  of  "large  group"  interests;  and 
that  the  first  habitual  —  even  instinctive  —  appeals  are  to 
submissiveness,  fear,  and  love  of  approval  or  distinction  as 
motives,  and  utilizing  penalties  and  rewards,  rules  and 
dogmas. 

The  maintenance  of  certain  well-defined  types  of  order, 


194  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

and  the  enforcement  of  certain  kinds  of  cooperation,  are 
in  schools  as  in  other  social  groups  to  be  regarded  primarily 
as  means  to  the  realization  of  the  larger  ends  for  which  schools 
exist.  The  scope  and  character  of  these  means,  therefore,  will 
usually  be  governed  by  very  pragmatic  considerations. 

The  class  is  the  primary  social  group  in  lower  schools  (or 
combination  of  classes  occupying  a  single  room).  It  is  in 
the  schoolroom  that  work  must  principally  be  done;  that 
harmony  must  be  maintained  among  individualities,  however 
indisposed  to  conform;  and  that  certain  types  of  cooperation 
must  be  assured. 

Obviously  the  rural  single-room  school  group  presents 
the  greatest  heterogeneity.  Here  are  commonly  found  the 
most  knotty  problems  of  school  government.  Here  very 
complex  interests  and  attainments  must  be  harmonized  if 
work  is  to  proceed  and  joint  living  five  or  six  hours  per 
day  be  made  tolerable.  In  the  urban  multiple-room  school 
any  given  room-group  is,  relatively,  fairly  homogeneous  as 
regards  age,  attainments,  and  dominant  interests. 

In  multiple-room  schools  for  younger  pupils  there  often 
exist  other  sub-groupings — cliques  or  gangs  for  special 
(childish)  purposes,  and  "the  school"  group  as  a  whole. 
But  needs  for  controls  here  are  variable,  since  school 
organization  and  spirit  are  vague  and  often  functionless 
except  in  a  crisis  or  when  the  "school  community"  is 
brought  to  consciousness. 

In  schools  for  older  pupils  the  room-group  may  become 
less  important  and  influential  from  the  standpoint  of  group 
consciousness,  need  of  exacting  controls,  and  common  rules. 
Departmentalizing  of  work  accentuates  some  problems  and 
lessens  difficulties  with  others.  In  large  schools  "cross 
cutting"  social  groups  —  clique  interests,  athletics,  and  the 
like  —  are  apt  to  come  into  prominence. 

Conformity  is  the  keynote  of  good  "school  citizenship." 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     195 

First  and  primarily  —  according  to  oligarchic  standards  now 
usually  prevailing  —  the  approved  pupil  exhibits  various 
specific  forms  of  the  conformist  virtues.  The  nonconformist 
virtues  have  little  place.  A  large  proportion  of  these  ap- 
proved virtues  are  concrete  and  standardized,  since  the  areas 
of  action  invisible  to  authorities  are  few,  as  contrasted  with 
the  social  areas  in  which  the  home,  church,  workshop,  com- 
munity, and  state  operate.  The  ends  to  be  achieved  by  the 
school  (at  the  time  or  for  the  proximate  future)  are  so 
determinate  that  clearly  defined  forms  of  discipline  (to 
procure  needed  conformities)  are  easily  practicable. 

Diagnosis  of  the  socializing  values  of  school  discipline 
requires  further  analysis  than  we  yet  possess.  The  difficulties 
of  control  and  social  adjustment  arise  because:  (1)  the 
child  comes  from  the  home  often  highly  individualized  in 
his  attitudes;  (2)  for  the  first  time,  generally,  he  is  required 
to  adjust  himself  to  long  periods  of  routine  employment, 
requiring  silence,  cramping  of  body,  and  other  restraints, 
for  which  nature  and  previous  experience  have  given  him 
little  preparation;  and  (3)  the  very  conditions  of  "school 
government"  readily  give  rise  to  "instinctive  gang"  opposi- 
tion to  the  oligarchic  control  of  teacher  and  other  authorities. 

Democratization  of  school  government  has  been  an  aspira- 
tion and  ideal  of  all  progressive  schools  for  several  decades. 
The  resulting  tendencies  in  practice  are:  (1)  diminished  dis- 
position on  the  part  of  teachers  and  other  authorities  to 
secure  control  by  appeal  to  fear,  use  of  corporal  punishment, 
arbitrary  rules  and  commands,  etc.;  (2)  increased  disposition 
to  inform  children  as  to  rationale  of  control;  (3)  greater 
reliance  upon  establishment  of  right  ideals  of  conformities, 
and,  occasionally,  of  corrective  nonconformities;  and  (4) 
occasional  use  (and  frequent  approval)  of  devices  whereby 
children  may  participate  in  some  of  the  controls  required 
for  the  effective  functioning  of  school  social  groups. 


196  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

Let  us  assume  that,  owing  to  effective  school  administra- 
tion, the  school  social  groups  in  which  a  given  youth  has 
membership  during  the  ten  years  of  his  life  from  6  to  16 
are  perfectly  functioning  groups  as  measured  by  standards 
generally  approved  during  recent  years.  During  his  par- 
ticipation in  these  groups  he  has  done  the  required  work 
acceptably,  and  has  not  been  disorderly,  untruthful,  obsti- 
nate, dishonest,  rebellious,  sulky,  idle,  dissolute,  improvi- 
dent, envious,  profane.  In  doing  "school  work,"  getting 
school  education,  he  has  been  a  "good  citizen."  In  what 
ways  and  to  what  degrees,  as  a  consequence,  has  he  probably 
been  thereby  made  fit  for  adult  citizenship  in  other  com- 
munity and  state  groups? 

These  problems  are  of  utmost  importance  to  educators. 
Even  acceptable  analyses  of  them  are  not  yet  available. 
Nearly  all  accessible  discussions  of  them  seem  to  be  confused 
by  various  forms  of  fallacious  reasoning  —  and  especially 
that  which  follows  the  principle,  post  hoc  ergo  propter  hoc. 

Civic  selection  by  schools.  It  is,  of  course,  probable 
that  in  so  far  as  there  exist  relatively  strong  instinctive 
tendencies  to  yield  to  authority,  to  seek  approval  of  superiors 
rather  than  equals,  to  be  easily  governed  by  fear  of  penalty, 
to  be  without  "small  group"  initiative,  etc.,  then,  of  course, 
the  possessors  of  these  relatively  strong  instincts  will  be 
"good"  subjects  under  school  controls.  Similarly,  in  so  far 
as  home  controls  produce  dispositions  of  conformity  to  rule 
of  elders,  of  submission  to  authority,  of  fear  of  penalties, 
etc.,  the  school  merely  selects,  but  does  not  produce,  social- 
ized individuals. 

Obviously  it  is  necessary  to  study  these  problems  from 
the  standpoint  of  various  types  of  social  qualities  that  may 
be  "transferred"  to  adult  life.  Here  our  psychological 
difficulties  are  great.  We  may  safely  assume  that  some 
aspirations  and  ideals  established  in  and  for  school  social 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     197 

life  are  largely  capable  of  transfer,  whilst  specific  habits  and 
knowledge  may  be  transferred  but  slightly. 

Pressing  this  line  of  inquiry  farther,  we  might  agree 
with  what  is  undoubtedly  a  widespread  belief  today  among 
progressive  educators,  that  if  there  were  two  schools  of 
absolutely  equal  effectiveness  as  regards  maintenance  of 
social  control  as  a  means  of  achieving  stated  formal  work, 
but  the  first  of  which  (School  A)  utilized  a  highly  oligarchic 
discipline,  whilst  the  second  (School  B)  utilized  a  relatively 
democratic  discipline,  the  second  would  give  better  results 
as  preparation  for  citizenship  in  a  liberal  republic. 

It  is  possible  that  concrete  analysis  of  specific  qualities 
might  help.  Take,  for  example,  the  much-used  word  "obedi- 
ence." It  embraces  the  central  virtues  of  the  pupil  under 
oligarchic  control.  But  there  are,  even  in  school  life,  several 
kinds  of  obedience.  In  practice  we  know  that  a  given 
learner  may  be  very  obedient  to  one  teacher  and  not  to 
another.  He  may  render  proud  and  grateful  submission  to 
the  athletic  coach  or  the  school  principal,  but  refuse  even 
decent  conformity  to  a  harassed  laboratory  assistant. 

In  adult  life  he  is  expected  to  obey  the  laws,  his  employer, 
the  traffic  policemen,  and  the  executive  committee  of  the 
club.  Do  the  forms  of  obedience  or  disobedience  here  mani- 
fested link  up  in  any  direct  order  with  those  manifested 
in  schooldays?  Or  is  it  here  again  a  case  of  "to  them  that 
have  shall  be  given,  and  from  them  that  have  not  shall 
be  taken  away  even  that  which  they  have"? 

The  positive  values  of  school  discipline  as  means  toward 
adult  civic  education  are  therefore  as  yet  but  slightly  known. 
The  efficacy  of  these  methods  must  be  tested  largely  in 
terms  of  their  present  functioning  in  contributing  to  orderly 
school  life  and  work.  Further  social  analysis  may  show  us 
certain  specific  respects  in  which  a  direct  connection  can 
be  traced  to  adult  practices,  especially  perhaps  in  the  fields 


198  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

of  general  habituation  (production  of  attitudes)  and  ideals. 
It  is  very  probable  that  the  respect  for  women  teachers 
enforced  in  lower  grades  carries  forward  into  adult  life  in 
the  shape  of  a  series  of  reactions  as  specific  as  the  tipping 
of  the  hat  or  the  polite  address  of  "Yes,  ma'am."  It  is 
very  probable,  too,  that  from  the  constant  insistence  of 
teachers  on  approved  social  behavior  insensibly  evolve  ideals 
appropriate  for  the  adult  citizen,  especially  in  situations 
involving  no  acute  conflict  with  his  personal  interests. 

The  prevalent  distrust  of  excessively  oligarchic  school 
control  may  very  probably  be  traced  to  imperfectly  defined 
convictions  that  the  specific  forced  obedience  thus  made 
habitual  cannot  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  prove  of  any 
functional  value  in  meeting  the  demands  made  upon  citizens 
in  adult  life  in  a  democracy  like  ours. 

HISTORY   STUDIES 

The  "history"  studies  that  have  gradually  been  incor- 
porated into  the  curricula  of  secondary  and  elementary 
schools  will,  for  the  purposes  here  under  consideration,  be 
grouped  under  two  heads,  developmental  and  projective  — 
for  convenience  designated  here  beta  and  alpha  objectives. 

Under  the  beta  head  are  included  the  myths,  stories, 
biographies,  narratives*  poems,  .novels,  and  pictures  that 
lie  outside  of  systematically  told  history.  Under  the  alpha 
head  will  be  included  all  those  systematic  presentations, 
usually  on  a  chronological  basis,  that  make  up  the  hundreds 
—  perhaps  thousands  —  of  textbooks  adapted  to  Grades  6 
to  12  in  the  public  schools. 

History  materials  of  the  beta  type  are  now  widely  used 
in  the  lower  grades.  They  merge  with  literature,  current 
events,  music,  and  graphic  art.  To  an  increasing  extent 
they  are  made  to  ."appeal"  to  the  interests  of  learners. 
From  these  sources  are  supposed  to  be  derived  appreciations, 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION      199 

ideals,  and  perhaps  a  small  amount  of  useful  knowledge. 
In  many  cases  pupils  develop  permanent  interests  in  reading, 
as  results  of  their  school  introduction  to  lives  of  noteworthy 
men,  stories  of  adventure,  heroic  poetry,  historical  novels, 
and,  now,  historical  moving  pictures.  In  recent  years 
materials  of  the  beta  order  have  been  widely  recommended 
to  supplement  regular  course  studies  in  Grades  6  to  12 
and  even  in  college. 

The  alpha  types  of  history  are  best  denned  by  reference 
to  existing  textbooks  and  also  by  questions  set  by  external 
examining  boards  such  as  the  Regents  of  the  State  of  New 
York  and  the  College  Entrance  Examination  Board.  For 
many  years  the  American  book  market  has  afforded  in 
large  variety  three  very  distinctive  types  of  history  .texts: 
(a)  very  simple  books ^_oji  Am^ncan^history  expressly  pre- 
pared for  children  below  the  seventh  grade;  (b)  very  com- 
pact, though  compendious  texts,  especially  designed  for 
Grades  7  and  8;  and  (c)  comprehensive-texts  in  world  history, 
ancient  history,  medieval  and  modern  history,  English  and 
American  history,  etc.,  designed  especially  for  high  schools. 

All  of  these  possess  certain  common  characteristics:  (a) 
Thex_Pl§sent  th^&uhie^tjiar^ely  m  it s  chronologicaLorder , 
except  that  often  the  history  of  one  area  is  developed  through 
a  considerable  period  before  the  history  of  a  corresponding 
period  for  a  different  area  is  taken  up.  (6)  They  give  space 
chiefly  to  the  events  that  have  seemed  of  most  importance 
to  subsequent  generations  (chiefly  political  events),  and 
largely  without  relation  to  the  significance  of  these  events 
for^p^emporary^or  expected  social  conditions,  (c)  The 
presentation  is  almost  invariably  formal  and  didactic  —  truly 
a  record  of  events  as  they  happened,  accompanied  sometimes 
by  running  threads  of  generalization  and  interpretation  ex- 
pressive of  the  views  of  the  textbook  writer  or  of  the  his- 
torians whom  he  follows. 


200  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

Standardized  examination  questions  also  show  certain 
fairly  uniform  characteristics:  (a)  They  test  learners  pri- 
marily as  to  memorization.  (6)  When  they  do  require  gener- 
alizations or  interpretations,  it  will  be  found  that  the  most 
acceptable  are  again  the  expression  of  memorized  contents. 
(c)  The  questions  rarely  call  for  facts  of  remembrance,  or 
for  conclusions  based  upon  reflection,  that  have  potent 
relationship  to  contemporary  or  prospective  social  problems. 

History  in  the  lower  grades  is  now  usually  taught  by 
what  are  here  later  called  the  methods  of  "developmental 
readings."  But  in  upper  grades  and  high  schools  little 
progress  has  yet  been  made  away  from  the  highly  didactic 
methods  long  characteristic  of  the  subject,  except  where  an 
uncommonly  resourceful  teacher,  having  available  a  quan- 
tity of  library,  source,  and  other  "laboratory"  materials, 
is  disposed  and  able  to  set  students  at  the  work  of  learning 
in  ways  somewhat  resembling  those  employed  by  the  original 
writers  of  history  itself.  For  the  majority  of  higher  grade 
pupils  "learning"  history  means  the  memorizing  of  textual 
statement,  and  uncritical  acceptance  of  textual  data  and 
generalization. 

The  same  methods  still  prevail  largely  also  in  the  other 
social  sciences,  as  is  indicated  elsewhere.  All  the  well-known 
texts  in  civil  government  consist  chiefly  of  condensed  de- 
scriptions of  the  structures  and  functions  of  political  or 
other  large  social  mechanisms,  supplemented  by  some  formal 
exhortations  to  prospective  citizens  as  to  their  obligations 
and  opportunities  through  civic  participation.  These  didac- 
tic texts  in  history  and  other  subjects  vary  considerably 
in  the  vividness  and  simplicity  of  their  topics,  in  the  extent 
to  which  they  include  or  exclude  topics  relevant  to  con- 
temporary civic  performance,  and  as  respect?  concrete 
"setting  and  dressing."  But  even  at  their  best  they  are 
not,  and  cannot  be,  "readable,"  in  the  sense  used  when  we 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     201 

speak  of  "readable"  books  of  travel,  biography,  or  fiction. 
They  leave  the  student  little  to  find  out  for  himself;  they 
set  him  no  tasks  except  the  dreary  one  of  "comprehending" 
and  "committing"  formal  and  condensed  statements  of  the 
text. 

"Didactic  methods"  of  presentation  are,  of  course,  of  very 
great  service  to  learning.  Every  cyclopedia,  dictionary, 
atlas,  scientific  treatise,  and  historical  work  of  reference  is 
obviously  made  effective  largely  by  the  adequacy  of  the 
didactic  form  upon  which  its  assemblage  and  organization 
of  material  is  based.  The  ordinary  textbooks  in  civil  govern- 
ment or  in  American  history  used  in  our  schools  would  be 
very  serviceable  as  books  of  reference  for  learners  seeking 
specific  information  to  supply  needs  developed  through 
other  contacts  or  "project-like"  activities.  But  in  the  study 
of  history,  as  of  other  subjects,  the  best  current  educational 
ideals  are  clearly  opposed  to  mere  verbal  memorization,  to 
the  "teaching"  of  facts  only,  and  to  the  mental  storage 
of  data  unrelated  to  present-day  life  -= — to  historic  didactic 
methods,  in  short.  Various  special  committees  on  the 
teaching  of  history  have  in  recent  years  expressed  aspirations 
and  formulated  courses  far  transcending  ordinary  "text- 
book" history  in  purposes  and  methods.  A  few  gifted  and 
favorably  circumstanced  teachers  succeed  in  lifting  the 
subject  much  above  memorization  levels,  even  though  the 
best  of  them  seem  only  slightly  to  succeed  in  making  the 
subject  "function"  in  current  life  —  whatever  that  may 
mean. 

Memorized  history.  But  it  is  submitted  that  the  history 
studied  by  probably  98  per  cent  of  the  pupils  from  12  to 
18  years  of  age  in  this  and  other  countries  consists  in  reality 
of  very  little  more  than  a  memorized  mastery  of  salient 
facts  and  generalizations,  usually  quite  without  conscious 
reference  to  the  social  issues  soon  to  be  vital  to  the  young 


202  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

citizen.  It  may  be  doubtful  whether  conditions  can  be 
otherwise,  in  view  of  the  principles  which  seem  to  control 
in  the  organization  of  history  as  a  "science." 

Is  it  desirable  or  practicable  to  define  a  series  of  "pro- 
jective" objectives  for  the  history  studies  of  elementary  and 
secondary  school?  "  Projective "  objectives,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, are  those  involving  attainments  of  forms  of  knowledge 
and  powers  of  execution  that  are  expected  to  remain  tangibly 
and  genuinely  functional  in  adult  years. 

In  most  of  the  recent  literature  on  the  teaching  of  history 
it  appears  that  these  are  stated  as  aspirations  rather  than 
actualities,  and  in  philosophical  rather  than  sociological, 
terms.  These  hoped-for  objectives  seem  to  be  about  equally 
divided  between  the  cultural  and  the  social,  as  the  terms 
are  used  in  this  book.  But  we  are  given  very  few  specific 
evidences  of  the  contributions  of  these  harder  historical 
studies  to  civic  appreciation  and  power  —  although  it  is 
always  implicitly  assumed,  if  not  sometimes  openly  asserted, 
that  citizens  can  "only  judge  (and  therefore  control)  the 
future  by  the  past." 

Results  of  American  history  study.  It  is  submitted  that 
critical  examination  of  the  results  of  history  teaching  would 
justify  these  statements: 

a.  American  history  as  studied  by  the  average  pupil  in 
Northern  states  who  does  not  reach  the  high  school,  leaves 
as  residuums  of  knowledge  and  appreciation  for  adult  years 
a  few  definite  conceptions  as  to:  (a)  historic  personages  — 
Columbus,  Washington,  Lee,  etc.;  (6)  certain  critical  dates 
and  eras — 1492,  1620,  the  Revolution,  etc.;  (c)  social 
valuations  —  the  treachery  of  most  Indians,  the  wickedness 
of  the  English  in  1776  and  their  lack  of  sympathy  in  1864, 
the  odiousness  of  slavery,  etc.;  and  (d)  some  broad  facts  of 
social  evolution  —  dominance  of  the  English  in  colonization, 
the  westward  movement,  growth  of  republican  institutions,  etc. 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     203 

Some  of  these  are  important,  if  not  indispensable,  factors 
in  cultural  education  for  20th-century  Americans;  but  the 
number  of  such  appreciations  and  units  of  knowledge  needed 
for  general  culture  (that  is,  as  "integrating"  knowledge  or 
appreciation)  is  probably  not  large,  and  these  are  certainly 
attained  very  wastefully  through  present  methods  which 
involve  memorization  of  thousands  of  facts. 

b.  American  history  study  has  very  slight,  if  any,  bearing 
on  the  adult  civic  behavior  of  stiidejits^2Lg^rflge-^nte^e-p^lia^ 
abiHtiej_^jinLinierests.  It  probably  does  not  affect:  political 
party  membership;  prevailing  attitudes  toward  general 
problems  such  as  immigration  or  treatment  of  the  Indians; 
attitudes  toward  English,  Mexicans,  Chinese,  or  Canadians, 
or  corporation  production;  or  insight  into  right  solutions  of 
problems  of  protective  tariffs,  government  control  of  general 
utilities,  negro  suffrage,  international  relations,  etc.  When 
the  time  comes  for  the  average  citizen  to  act  in  situations 
related  to  any  of  the  above  —  that  is,  to  influence  others,  to 
vote,  to  approve  of  policies  proposed  by  others  —  he  does  so 
with  very  slight  or  negligible  reference  to  what  he  has 
learned  from  history.  (This  may  not  always  mean  that 
those  specialists  who  influence  him  —  political  leaders, 
editors,  legislators  —  are  similarly  unaffected  by  their 
school  or  post-school  studies  of  history.) 

c.  American  history  studies,  for  a  minority  of  gifted  youth 
whose  school  studies  in  general  simply  open  the  doors  to 
regions  which  they  will  largely  explore  by  themselves, 
may  be  introductory  to  important  fields  of  culture  and  social 
appreciation  and  thus  make  important  indirect  contributions 
to  adult  civic  behavior,  especially  under  conditions  where 
initiative  and  leadership  are  required. 

In  other  words,  wThen,  in  adult  life,  a  man  of  superior 
intelligence  and  intellectual  enterprise  is  confronted  by  social 
problems  he  naturally  turns  to  past  experience  for  guidance. 


204  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

Probably  almost  never  does  he  find  that  guidance  in  what  he 
has  previously  actually  learned  of  American  or  other  history. 
But  the  historic  situations  of  which  he  has  remembrance,  the 
methods  of  locating  historic  facts  and  authorities  with  which 
he  has  become  acquainted,  as  well  as  his  cultural  interests  in 
particular  fields,  all  unite  in  giving  him  confidence  that  he 
can  in  some  historic  situation  find  help  toward  solving  his 
present  problems.  History  as  now  taught  seems  only  occa- 
sionally to  train  him  directly  in  these  powers.  Neither  does 
it  give  him  any  reliable  criteria  as  to  the  service  historical] 
knowledge  can  offer  in  solving  present  problems. 

d.  The  history  studies  of  the  high  school  make  still  fewer 
and  less  important  contributions  to  the  total  of  adult  civic 
behavior  than  does  American  history  as  studied  in  the  upper 
grades.  Exceptions  to  this  conclusion  apply  only  in  the  case 
of  that  very  small  number  of  high  school  students  who 
eventually  become  publicists  or  governmental  agents. 

e.  But  these  studies  do  leave  cultural  residuums  of 
importance,  notwithstanding  the  large  amount  of  straw  that 
students  are  now  obliged  to  winnow  for  the  sake  of  the  wheat. 

Projective  objectives.  What  might  well  be  the  "pro- 
jective" or  alpha  objectives  of  history  studies  2  The  follow- 
ing considerations  are  submitted  as  a  basis  for  discussion: 

a.  Salient  history.  Beginning  perhaps  in  the  third  or 
fourth  grade,  and  held  as  a  requirement  for  all  up  to  age 
14,  and  thereafter  as  an  elective,  should  be  units  of  salient 
history,  spirally  progressive  from  grade  to  grade,  and  de- 
signed primarily  to  minister  to  certain  structural  foundations 
of  cultural  objectives.  This  salient  history  should  be  de- 
signed to  insure  fairly  accurate  knowledge,  of  a  small  number 
of  dates,  personages,  and  significant  circumstances  connected 
with  momentous  events,  turning  points,  and  tendencies  in 
history.  Such  knowledge  should  give  essential  intellectual 
frameworks  comparable  to  those  now  sought  in  the  science 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     205 

subjects  and  arithmetic.  In  fourth  and  fifth  grades  such 
mastery  might  profitably  be  limited  to  a  half-dozen  critical 
points  in  American  history.  At  the  end  of  the  eighth  grade 
it  certainly  should  not  have  included  more  than  one  twen- 
tieth of  the  details  which  now  congest  the  typical  elementary 
school  textbook.  Throughout  the  high  school  period  the 
four  successive  units  of  this  projective  history  study  should 
not  have  included  more  than  3  to  5  per  cent  of  the  number- 
less dates,  personages,  battles,  and  hurryings  to  and  fro 
charted  in  any  of  the  ordinary  volumes  of  "Ancient"  and 
"Medieval  and  Modern"  histories.  The  units  of  history 
study  thus  contemplated  should  not  require  more  than  5  to 
8  per  cent  of  the  total  school  time  available. 

b.  History-based  problems.  Beginning  probably  in  the 
seventh  grade  and  continuing  as  electives  in  all  grades  above 
should  be  a  series  of  "short  unit"  courses  on  those  social- 
science  problems  of  demonstrable  importance  to  contem- 
porary or  not  distant  future  American  citizenship,  which 
rest  tangibly  on  historic  foundations  comprehensible  by  the 
learner.  These  should  be  "hard"  or  alpha  type  subjects, 
designed  primarily  to  produce,  in  relation  to  the  particular 
areas  of  social  thought  and  action  involved,  the  clear-think- 
ing, judicious  citizen,  conscious  on  the  one  hand  of  the 
complexity  of  the  problems  involved, .  and  of  the  partial 
character  of  the  solutions  thus  far  reached,  and  on  the  other 
of  the  necessity  of  acting,  as  occasions  arise,  in  the  light 
of  theJbest  knowledge,  available. 

These  problems  will  be  chosen  first  ^n  the  basis  pf  relevaney 
to jthe  political,  economic,  or  other, social  issues  nf  the  day; 
second,  because^,  of  their-  suitability  for  consideration  by 
learners  of  the  age  and  grade  under  consideration;  and  third, 
because  of  the  extent  to  which  they  utilize  and  even  re- 
illuminejhistory.  It  may  prove  expedient  to  group  these 
problems  in  Grades  7  and  8  under  community  civics  and 


206  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

local  government  studies;  in  the  ninth  grade,  as  political 
science  or  civil  government;  in  the  tenth  as  economics;  and 
in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  as  sociology.  But  probably  this 
will  not  be  necessary  —  it  may,  in  fact,  prove  undesirable. 
(It  is,  of  course,  assumed  that  other  offerings  of  social  prob- 
lems will  be  made  in  which  the  "historical  foundations"  will 
be  unimportant  or  inaccessible  to  ordinary  students.) 

When  we  once  detach  ourselves  from  the  prepossessions 
engendered  by  too  close  adherence  to  academic  classifications, 
it  becomes  obvious  that  in  connection  with  each  of  such  live 
topics  as  immigration,  rejief  of  poverty,  collective  bargaining, 
the  borrowing  of  capital,  the  extension  of  the  suffrage,  and 
scores  of  others,  there  are  some  vital  problems  that  may  well 
be  studied  attentively  by  eighth-grade  pupils  (certainly  they 
are  no  more  difficult  than  much  of  the  arithmetic  we  seek 
at  that  time  to  have  mastered) ;  whilst  others  may  well  have 
to  be  postponed  to  later  grades  in  schools  or  even  in  college. 
Other  groups  of  problems,  such  as  government  ownership 
of  general  utilities,  colonial  policies,  international  relations, 
negro  suffrage,  tariffs,  alien  ownership  of  land,  and  the  like 
may  not  supply  any  problems  suitable  for  grades  below 
the  ninth  and  tenth  wherein  are  now  utilized  the  highly 
complex  and  abstract  problems  of  algebra  and  plane 
geometry. 

Now  it  is  iir  the  study  of  problems  like  these  that  history 
can  really  be  brought  into  the  genuine  service  of  civic 
education.  Learners  will  here  be  concerned  (very  much  as 
will  be  the  case  in  mature  life)  only  with  those  times,  hap- 
penings, and  conditions  in  history  which  give  him  light  on 
the  problems  that  he  then  has  in  hand.  To  the  proper  sources 
of  information  they  will,  ofxcourse,  in  each  case  be  guided  by 
special  bibliographies,  indexes,  and  the  teacher  —  and 
perhaps  by  other  means  yet  to  be  evolved.  The  salient  history 
that  has  thus  far  been  learned  should  serve  also,  like  the 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     207 

framework  of  a  house,  the  skeleton  of  the  body,  or  the 
essential  principles  of  science,  to  guide  and  organize  the 
learner's  searchings  for  details. 

As  suggested  above,  not  all  of  the  social-science  problem* 
to  be  studied  will  have  important  historic  aspects  —  which 
discovery  may  yet  serve  to  rescue  us  from  present  delusions 
as  to  the  large  part  knowledge  of  the  past  should  play  in 
decisions  involving  only  the  present  and  future!  But  many 
of  them  will.  We  can  readily  imagine  a  class  in  a  seventh 
grade  confronted  by  any  vital  municipal-service  problem  such 
as  those  involved  in  urban  transportation.  Such  problems 
would  be  approached  by  such  questions  as  these : 

A.  Transportation  problems  of  our  city. 

a.  Is  our  city,  as  regards  transportation  facilities,  a  very 
good  place  to  live  in?  Is  it  so  for  prosperous  people?  foi 
very  poor  people?  for  negroes  of  refined  tastes?  for  recent 
immigrants? 

b.  In  what  ways  and  to  what  extent  are  the  transportation 
facilities  of  our  city  very  good?  fair?  poor?  very  bad?  More 
particularly,  what  about  the  streets?  street  cars?  bridges? 

c.  Are  the  terminal  and  harbor  facilities  of  our  city  good 
or  bad?  Particularize  as  to  passenger  facilities;  export 
freight  facilities;  import  freight  facilities. 

B.  Other  present-day  cities  (comparative  studies). 

a.  What  seem  to  be  the  transportation  problems  of 
Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  London? 

Now  the  study  of  these  problems  will  readily  throw  the 
student  back  upon  many  important  lines  of  history.  For 
example : 

C.  Our  city  in  former  times. 

a.  What  were  the  historic  conditions  which  led  to  the 
founding  of  the  city  here? 

b.  Why  are  the  older  streets  so  narrow? 

c.  Was  this  ever  a  walled  city?    What  are  some  of  the 


208  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

peculiarities  of  cities  once  walled  like  London  and  Nurem- 
berg?  Why  the  term  "Wall  Street"  in  New  York? 

d.  For  sake  of  appreciations  (hardly  for  practical  appli- 
cation) read  stories  of  Babylon,  Tyre,  Athens,  Rome, 
Edinburgh. 

SOCIAL  SCIENCES  BY  DIDACTIC  PRESENTATION 

As  indicated  above,  the  words  "didactic  method"  as  used 
here  are  intended  to  designate  those  methods  of  instruction 
based  upon  direct  "telling"  or  other  forthright  conveyance 
of  knowledge. 

Current  textbooks.  Nearly  all  contemporary  textbooks 
in  social-science  subjects  designed  for  learners  from  12  to 
18  years  of  age  are  based  upon  what  is  here  called  the  didac- 
tic method.  Such  texts  are  in  the  main  descriptive  of  facts 
of  social  structures  and  functions,  contemporary  or  historical. 
These  are  selected  with  reference  to  assumed  civic  needs 
and  by  current  pedagogical  standards.  Supplemental  prob- 
lems and  topics  for  special  study  are  usually  incidental  and 
unsatisfactory.  Attempts  are  sometimes  made  in  the  t€ixt 
to  "connect"  with  the  social  environmental  experiences  of 
learners,  but  these  attempts  seem  usually  to  be  futile,  partly 
because  of  the  fact  that  the  text  commonly  must  be  written 
equally  for  East  and  for  West,  for  city  and  for  country,  for 
pupils  of  high,  and  for  those  of  low,  intelligence.  Most  of 
these  books  seriously  violate  accepted  pedagogic  principles 
as  to  the  inductive  methods  of  approach,  and  fail  to  utilize 
propensities  of  students  toward  self -activity.  Very  probably 
effective  pedagogy  in  civic  subjects  will  require  that  what 
are  here  called  didactic  methods  of  civic  education  shall 
be  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  that  other  methods  be  em- 
ployed as  fast  as  they  are  developed. 

Didactic  methods  are,  usually,  the  first  to  be  developed  in 
any  new  field  of  instruction  or  training.  The  leader,  specialist, 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     209 

or  teacher  has  by  one  means  or  another  attained  to  some 
kind  of  mastery  of  his  subject.  Naturally  he  tends  to  organize 
his  knowledge  of  data  or  procedures  in  the  most  "logical" 
and  compact  fashion  practicable.  Seeking  to  convey  his 
possessions  to  others,  to  instruct  them,  he  tends  inevitably 
to  begin  with  the  definitions,  formulae,  compact  descriptions, 
and  logical  structures  of  data  into  generalizations  that  he 
has  finally  developed  for  his  own  use. 

Many  of  the  vices  of  didactic  methods  are,  of  course,  now 
well  understood  by  educators.  They  know  well  enough  in 
theory  that,  far  from  being  a  "natural"  method,  it  is  a  most 
unnatural  one,  since  a  large  part  of  the  knowledge  intended 
to  be  conveyed  is  quite  unassimilable  by  learners  too  im- 
mature or  otherwise  unready  for  the  materials  presented 
in  the  highly  concentrated  forms  customary  in  this  method. 

Varieties  of  ability.  A  large  amount  of  contemporary 
civic  education  for  pupils  upward  of  12  years  of  age  proceeds 
on  the  implicit  assumption  that  all  learners  are  "born  equal"  — 
in  abilities  and  prospective  opportunities,  that  is.  That  fal- 
lacy is  no  less  glaring  and  serious  than  was  the  one  sometimes 
formerly  arising  from  naive  interpretations  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  that  "all  men  are  born 
equal."  The  undoubted  fact  is  that  between  the  ages  of 
12  and  18  pupils  vary  as  much  in  their  competency  to  study 
courses  in  civic  education  effectively  as  they  vary  in  abilities 
to  study  music,  mathematics,  drawing,  or  shop  work. 
Courses  cannot,  of  course,  be  made  for  each  individual; 
but  it  is  certainly  practicable  in  large  schools  to  organize 
courses  for  two  or  three  different  intelligence  levels,  espe- 
cially since  it  will  probably  be  found  that  in  many  cases 
the  abilities  thus  differentiated  will  to  a  very  considerable 
extent  be  paralleled  by  closely  correlated  civic  appreciations, 
vital  experiences,  and  potentialities.  For  practical  purposes 
a  distinctive  group,   sub-average  in   ability   and   probably 


210  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

destined  to  leave  school  at  not  more  than  16  years  of  age, 
might  well  be  recognized  among  those  above  12  years  of  age. 
Because  of  their  disproportionately  large  political  influence 
to  be  exerted  later  in  democratic  citizenship  as  compared 
with  their  abilities,  special  attention  might  well  be  given 
to  their  civic  training.  Very  different  kinds  of  education 
should  be  given  also  to  that  conspicuous  minority  of  super- 
average  abilities  who  will  probably  finish  high  school. 

As  long  as  we  are  obliged  to  depend  upon  "didactic" 
methods,  the  best  that  can  be  done  is  to  simplify  texts, 
eliminating  the  relatively  less  essential.  Many  of  the  most 
popular  of  texts  now  used  are  veritable  cyclopedias  of  civic 
data  and  principles,  which,  like  compendious  texts  in  history, 
would  be  valuable  as  books  of  reference.  But  the  aspirations 
apparently  cherished  in  some  quarters  that  any  considerable 
numbers  of  pupils  will,  in  the  first  place,  really  "master" 
these  encyclopedic  volumes  of  material,  or  that,  in  the  second 
place,  any  such  partial  or  complete  mastery  will  work 
significant  changes  in  behavior  are  probably  far  wide  of 
realities. 

PROJECT  METHODS 

In  the  organization  of  the  "means"  of  education  —  the 
studies,  lectures,  "tellings,"  discussions,  experiments,  exer- 
cises, assigned  readings,  memorizings,  reports,  activities, 
problems,  trials,  tests,  examinations,  etc.,  through  which  we 
achieve  our  desired  ends  —  insufficient  attention  was  formerly 
given  to  the  production  of  effective  "teaching  units"  of  the 
kind  that  would  be  especially  significant  to  the  learner.  The 
"question  and  answer"  unit  —  as  seen  at  its  best  in  the 
catechism  —  was  the  smallest  unit  ever  devised.  It  was  in 
part  definitely  pedagogical  and  in  part  definitely  logical.  It 
was  eminently  suited  to  an  age  /in  which  authority  was  the 
source  of  all  knowledge  for  the  learner,  and  verbal  memori- 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     211 

zation  the  chief  means  of  fixing  in  the  minds  of  each  new 
generation  the  dogmas  and  other  authoritative  teachings  of 
the  older  generation.  This  unit  had  also  the  peculiar  ad- 
vantage of  being  very  easily  handled  by  unskilled  and 
uninformed  teachers. 

The  "lesson"  unit  has  always  been  in  part  a  pedagogical 
unit  —  that  is,  based  upon  the  powers  and  weaknesses  of 
learners  —  rather  than  a  logical  unit  —  that  is,  based  upon 
the  inherent  characteristics  of  subject-matter,,  It  has  prob- 
ably never  been  a  true  pedagogical  unit  —  that  is,  taking 
account  of  all  the  characteristics  to  be  found  in  the  child 
as  active  learner.  It  .might  be  called  a  unit  based  roughly 
upon  the  capacity  of  the  learner  to  sustain  attention,  to 
endure  application,  or  to  give  working  time.  It  is,  in  other 
words,  a  convenient  task,  a  sort  of  day's  work,  so  far  as  a 
particular  kind  of  activity  was  concerned.  It  is  often  an 
arbitrarily  sliced-off  portion  of  subject-matter,  and  com- 
monly represents  frequently  no  logical  division  of  that 
subject-matter  at  all  —  resembling,  therefore,  as  a  unit,  a 
stated  length  of  board  or  cloth  or  a  slice  of  bread  rather 
than  a  tree  trunk,  a  garment,  a  biscuit,  or  other  more  organic 
unit. 

The  "topic"  which  in  many  studies  succeeded  the  lesson 
as  the  teaching  unit  of  chief  importance  was  especially 
characterized  by  its  logical  relation  to  some  larger  unit  or 
"whole"  of  subject-matter,  while  at  the  same  time  it  was 
endeavored  in  it  to  take  account  of  the  possible  focusing 
of  interests  and.  the  intellectual  "spanning  powers"  of  young 
learners.  In  many  respects  it  wras  therefore  an  advance 
on  units  previously  developed.  It  lent  itself  especially  well 
to  teaching  in  which  some  reasoning,  inference,  and  com- 
parison on  tjie  part  of  the  learner  was  sought  in  lieu  of 
the  verbal  memorizing  which  had  formerly  prevailed. 

A  few  years  ago  educators  began  using  the  word  "project" 


212  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

to  describe  a  unit  of  educative  work  in  which  the  most 
prominent  feature  was  some  form  of  positive  and  concrete 
achievement  having  vital  significance  to  the  relatively 
"natural"  learning  instincts  of  young  people.  The  baking  of 
a  loaf  of  bread,  the  making  of  a  shirtwaist,  the  raising  of  a 
bushel  of  corn,  the  making  of  a  table,  the  installation  of  an 
electric-bell  outfit  —  all  these,  when  undertaken  by  learners, 
and  when  so  handled  as  to  result  in  large  acquisitions  of  new 
knowledge  and  other  experience  products,  were  called 
projects.  Projects  of  this  kind  might  be  individual  or 
cooperative.  They  might  be  executed  in  an  ordinary  lesson 
period,  or  they  might  claim  the  efforts  of  the  learner  for  one 
or  more  hours  per  day  for  several  weeks. 

Projects.  The  following  were  the  primary  characteristics 
of  projects  as  thus  conceived:  (a)  the  undertaking  always 
possessed  a  certain  unity;  (6)  the  learner  himself  clearly 
conceived  and  valued  the  practical  ends  or  outcomes  to  be 
attained  (even  though  these  might  be  quite  different  from 
the  objectives  intended  and  realized  by  teachers),  and  it  was 
always  expected  that  these  outcomes  were  full  of  interest  to 
him,  luring  him  on,  as  to  definite  goals  to  be  won;  (c)  the 
standards  of  achievement  were  clearly  objective  —  so  much 
so  that  the  learner  and  his  fellows  could,  in  large  part,  render 
valuable  decisions  as  to  the  worth  —  in  an  amateur  or  in  a 
commercial  sense  —  of  the  product;  and  (d)  the  undertaking 
was  of  such  a  nature  that  the  learner,  in  achieving  his  desired 
ends,  would  necessarily  have  to  apply  much  of  his  previous 
knowledge  and  experience  —  perhaps  heretofore  not  con- 
sciously held  as  usable  in  this  way  (e.g.,  art,  science,  mathe- 
matics, special  tool  skills)  —  and  probably  would  have  to 
acquire  also  some  new  knowledges  and  skills. 

As  in  many  other  forms  of  learning,  the  objectives  held  in 
view  by  learner  and  teacher  were  often  unlike.  What  the 
learner  imagined  as  an  end  the  teacher  conceived  often  as  a 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     213 

means  to  some  remoter  and  probably  more  important 
educational  end. 

In  the  early  stages  of  the  development  of  certain  forms  of 
agricultural  and  industrial  vocational  education,  a  number 
of  educators  favored  the  project  as  the  chief  pedagogic  unit 
of  organization.  In  a  sense  any  concrete  job  undertaken  in  a 
vocational  school  where  the  realization  of  valuable  results  in 
the  shape  of  "products"  constitutes  an  important  end,  might 
be  called  a  "project";  but  to  be  an  "educational  project" 
such  a  job  (e.g.,  turning  a  spindle,  electric  wiring  for  a  bell, 
growing  a  half -acre  of  potatoes,  taking  commercial  charge  of 
three  cows  for  a  year,  cooking  family  breakfasts  for  a  month, 
making  ten  salable  shirtwaists,  cooperatively  building  and 
selling  a  cottage,  etc.)  must  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  offer 
large  opportunity  not  only  for  the  acquisition  of  new  skill 
and  experience  in  practical  manipulation,  but  also  for 
application  of  old,  and  learning  of  new,  "related  knowledge" 
—  from  art,  science,  mathematics,  administration,  hygiene, 
social  science,  etc. 

Recently  it  would  seem  that  the  conception  of  "project," 
especially  as  applied  in  the  "project  method,"  has  been 
greatly  widened.  We  hear  of  projects  in  music,  history, 
mathematics,  and  literature,  where  a  tangible  "product"  of 
an  objective,  external  character  certainly  reduces  to  the 
vanishing  point,  and  the  so-called  project  becomes  merely 
an  "enterprise"  in  learning  under  another  name,  with  perhaps 
slightly  less  of  autocratic  imposition  of  task,  and  slightly 
greater  inducement  of  self-activity  (often  very  artificially 
inspired  or  stimulated,  however)  than  in  the  historic  topics, 
problems,  lessons,  and  other  tasks. 

Properly  restricted,  the  term  "project  method"  is  very 
serviceable,  since  it  well  designates  a  kind  of  method,  appli- 
cable indeed  only  under  some  conditions,  to  some  mater  als, 
and  for  some  learning  purposes,  but  in  these  connections  a 


214  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

method  of  utmost  value.  This  is  clearly  the  situation  in  civic 
education.  Only  a  small  part  of  the  objectives  of  civic 
education  can,  probably,  be  achieved  through  the  project 
method.  But  as  far  as  it  is  applicable,  it  is  clearly  a  very 
useful  method,  productive  of  very  realistic  experiences  and 
accompanying  appreciations,  insights,  ideals,  and,  perhaps, 
habits. 

Types  of  projects.  In  civic  education  three  unlike  types 
of  projects  can  now  be  distinguished:  (a)  Social  (or  civic) 
service  projects;  (b)  dramatic  projects;  and  (c)  survey  projects. 

The  term  "service  project"  is  here  restricted  to  those 
individual  or  collective  activities  which  are  positively  valuable 
to  some  social  group  or  member  thereof,  other  than  the 
doer.  Projects  merely  of  "conformity"  or  obedience  to  law 
should  probably  be  excluded,  however.  Among  true  social- 
service  projects  now  more  or  less  familiar  to  educators  are 
the  following: 

a.  The  pupils  of  a  school  undertake  improvements  either 
for  the  obvious  benefit  of  the  pupils  themselves  —  as  where 
a  playground  is  cleared,  running  tracks  or  playing  grounds 
developed,  or  apparatus  made;  or  else  for  the  school  in  its 
community  aspects  —  as  where  the  building  is  painted,  the 
grounds  fenced,  or  repairs  made. 

b.  A  class  of  pupils  or  portion  thereof  undertake  consola- 
tion or  relief  work  —  reading  to  bed-bound  old  people  or 
children,  providing  a  Christmas  dinner  and  gifts  for  a  widow 
(or  other  destitute  woman)  and  children. 

c.  "Clean  town"  enterprises  of  various  sorts. 

d.  Gardening,  fruit  canning  and  drying,  stock  raising,  etc., 
in  time  of  food  scarcity. 

e.  Red  Cross  projects  in  providing  bandages,  clothing,  and 
the  like. 

/.  Guiding  old  people,  sightseers,  and  the  like  in  times  of 
conventions  (Boy  Scouts). 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     215 

g.  A  number  of  pupils  undertake  to  report  illegal  condi- 
tions, fire  hazards,  exposed  food  in  markets,  neglected 
garbage,  broken  railings,  etc. 

Service  projects,  for  the  areas  of  experience  which  theyl 
affect,  are  educative  in  ways  and  to  degrees  not  possible 
through  other  means  and  methods.  Unfortunately,  they  can 
be  devised,  apparently,  for  but  few  departments  of  civic 
experience,  and  they  are  usually  very  expensive  of  time  and 
teaching  skill  in  execution.  They  are  especially  difficult  to 
provide  in  large  cities  where  so  large  a  part  of  public-utilities 
service  is  necessarily  on  a  paid  specialist  basis.  In  remote 
rural  communities  boys  of  appropriate  ages  could  well  be. 
organized  to  repair  storm-washed  roads,  watch  for  strayed 
animals,  trap  vermin,  clear  roadsides  of  weeds,  be  ready  to 
combat  fires,  help  distressed  families,  and  aid  in  providing 
festivals,  advertising  public  meetings,  promoting  regional: 
enterprises,  and  the  like.  But  in  cities  these  functions  fall- 
under  paid  service,  and  volunteer  labor  is  commonly  more  of 
a  hindrance  than  a  help. 

Valuable  projects  utilizing  "civic  watchfulness"  as  a- 
basis  have  been  in  a  few  cases  suggested  for  cities  —  such* 
as  reporting  fire  menaces,  littered  lots,  and  uncared-for 
streets.  In  cities  especially  the  worthy  citizen,  as  eo-* 
employer  of  the  numerous  paid  servants  of  the  municipality, 
should  be  always  vigilant  to  see  that  the  prescribed  duties* 
of  these  are  properly  discharged.  It  is  not  difficult  to  or- 
ganize boys,  instructed  as  to  the  duties  of  policemen,  street 
sweepers,  garbage  carriers,  and  the  like  so  that  they  will 
become  keen  critics  of  those  functionaries.  Neither  is  it 
difficult  to  train  them  in  watchfulness  over  the  compliance 
of  private  individuals  with  ordinances  relative  to  freeing 
sidewalks  from  obstructions,  keeping  exposed  foods  properly 
protected,  freeing  sidewalks  from  ice  and  snow,  and  the 
like. 


216  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

But  such  "civic"  activities  on  the  part  of  juveniles  must 
be  very  carefully  safeguarded  if  mere  meddlesomeness  and  a 
spirit  of  captious  criticism  are  to  be  avoided.  It  is  probably 
a  safe  rule  that  the  teacher  should  always  be  the  intermediary 
between  the  boys  and  the  authorities  to  whom  first  sugges- 
tions, and  finally  criticisms,  are  to  be  made.  Supervision  of 
the  work  of  public  or  private  servants  is  something  not  to  be 
lightly  undertaken.  Certainly  it  should  involve,  from  the 
outset,  appreciation  and  careful  understanding  of  the  positive 
aspects  of  that  work  —  what  the  workers  are  doing  now, 
perhaps  with  ill-defined  tasks,  poor  tools,  and  hampering 
conditions. 

Service  projects  are  not,  of  course,  to  be  regarded  as  ends 
in  themselves.  They  are  primarily  educational  means  to 
certain  types  of  civic  appreciation,  understanding,  idiral,  and 
perhaps  occasionally  habit;  but  the  effective  use  of  these 
projects  requires  not  only  that  their  objectives  shall  be  defined 
in  the  minds  of  teachers  with  some  detail,  but  also  that 
skillful  work  shall  be  done  in  interpreting  or  translating  the 
project  so  as  to  insure  its  full  functioning. 

Dramatic  projects  seem  to  have  a  very  large  field,  but 
their  permanent  educational  values,  except  for  young  chil- 
dren, recent  immigrants,  and  other  minds  readily  stimulated 
or  inspired  by  symbolic  appeal,  are  still  questionable.  The 
method  of  the  drama  or  pageant  may,  however,  have  excep- 
tional values  in  times  of  great  emotional  tension  —  in  the 
early  stages  of  war,  in  a  great  relief  movement,  etc. 

Public  schools  now  give  many  good  examples  of  projects 
for  earlier  grades  —  commemorations,  historic  dramatiza- 
tions, reproduced  festivals,  mock  elections,  naturalization, 
jury  duty,  small  pageants,  etc. 

For  upper  grades  and  high  schools  it  seems  probable  that 
the  method  fails  unless  planned  and  directed  by  persons  of 
large  dramatic  powers.    Perhaps  the  method,  even  at  best, 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     217 

is  ill  adapted  to  the  sophistication  of  well-informed 
adolescents.1 

"Survey"  projects  seem  to  have  large  possibilities.  In 
general  science  and  community  civics,  much  good  work  is 
now  done  through  visits  to  local  institutions,  inspections, 
etc.  To  give  these  the  essential  characteristics  of  survey 
projects  it  is  only  necessary  that  learners  be  held  responsible 
for  carefully  prepared  reports,  interpretations,  and  the  like. 

At  all  periods  in  school  life  it  should  prove  possible,  if  time 
and  facilities  are  available,  to  utilize  visits,  observations,  and 
interpretations  of  social  institutions  as  means  of  civic 
education.  Community  civics  has  already  familiarized  us 
with  these  means  and  methods  as  related  to  local  govern- 
mental and  some  other  social  agencies. 

The  local  fire  department,  street  repair,  water  supply,  gas 
supply,  passenger  transportation,  public  education,  garbage 
disposal,  policing  and  some  other  functions  can  be  very 
clearly  comprehended  from  visits  in  urban  or  semi-urban 
conditions.  The  discernment  of  these  functions  is  more 
difficult  in  a  rural  environment  where  they  are 'either  absent, 
vaguely  held  by  citizens  (as  policing  and  fire  protection),  or 
are  located  in  distant  places  such  as  county  courthouses. 

Concrete  economics  of  production  of  raw  materials,  elabo- 
ration of  raw  materials,  transportation,  merchandising, 
banking,  inspection,  and  the  like  can  also  be  taught  in  many 
environments  in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  at  least  to  important 
appreciations  if  not  to  useful  forms  of  insights. 

School  excursions  are  difficult  to  organize,  and  entail 
large  responsibilities  on  teachers.  Nevertheless,  with  proper 
utilization  of  student  leaders,  careful  programing,  and  the 

1  In  the  attempt  to  dramatize  the  problems  of  government  brief  plays 
or  masques  may  be  very  useful.  The  following  references  are  helpful: 
Payne,  F.  Ursula,  Plays  and  Pageants  of  Citizenship;  Tucker  and  Ryan, 
Historical  Plays  of  Colonial  Days;  Mackaye,  Percy,  The  New  Citizenship. 


218  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

like,  these  ought  to  prove  of  very  great  value  in  all  grades 
from  the  first  to  the  twelfth  as  inspection  or  survey  projects. 
It  should  be  clear  that  cultural  objectives  may  more  often 
control  any  work  of  this  character  than  civic  objectives.  In 
fact,  it  is  of  utmost  importance  that  such  civic  objectives  as 
are  held  should  be  very  clearly  defined  and  means  and 
methods  carefully  adapted  to  their  realization;  otherwise  no 
permanent  interpretations  or  evaluations  follow. 

DEVELOPMENTAL  READINGS 

The  term  "developmental  readings"  will  be  used  here  to 
include:  (a)  all  general  reading  done  by  learners  when 
motivated  by  curiosity  or  active  interest  in  the  content  itself 
or  in  the  direct  use  of  the  content  for  discussion  or  debate; 

(b)  reading  to  learners  by  teachers  for  the  sake  of  conveying 
information  or  of  interesting  them  in  further  reading;  and 

(c)  informative  or  inspirational  lectures  for  the  same  purpose, 
where  no  systematic  note  taking  or  subsequent  study  of  the 
content  of  the  lecture  is  required. 

Developmental  readings  are,  obviously,  one  of  the  com- 
monest methods  of  self-education  among  adults,  usually 
ranking  next  in  importance  to  oral  intercourse,  and,  so  far 
as  civic  knowledge  is  concerned,  often  far  outweighing  oral 
intercourse  in  importance.  Such  reading  among  adults 
closely  corresponds  to  the  beta  types  of  activities  in  schools. 
Most  of  it  is  to  satisfy  present  interest  or  need.  There 
is  little  conscious  reference  to  remote  goals.  Not  much  of 
such  reading  is  done  in  a  spirit  that  could  be  called  thorough. 
We  often  condemn  it  as  superficial;  but  the  superficial 
apprehensions  obtained  seem  usually  to  represent  reasonable 
resultants  between  available  time  and  needed  attainments. 
The  method  is  certainly  largely  justified  by  the  fact  that 
our  best-trained  and  most  competent  men  and  women 
everywhere  use  it,  often  for  hours  daily,  outside  of  strenuous 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     219 

periods  devoted  to  productive  work,  in  connection  with 
intellectual  recreation,  personal  culture,  and  self-advance- 
ment in  civic  insight.  Witness  the  large  amount  of  magazine, 
newspaper,  and  other  "current  literature"  reading  done  by 
educated  men  everywhere. 

To  be  effective,  developmental  readings  should  have 
holding  power  both  in  content  and  in  method  of  presentation. 
All  writing  that  has  to  stand  the  test  of  popular  approval  has 
clearly  to  meet  these  two  conditions.  The  content  must  be 
timely,  pertinent,  and  significant  to  the  reader  according  to 
his  powers,  apperceptive  interests,  and  the  external  stimuli 
by  which  he  is  affected.  Methods  of  presentation  rise,  in  the 
best  products,  to  the  levels  of  fine  arts  —  the  literary  arts, 
standards  in  which,  as  far  as  juvenile  readers  are  concerned, 
are  yet  obscure. 

Prescription.  Nothing  is  usually  gained  by  attempts  to 
prescribe  developmental  reading  for  youths.  As  among 
adults,  each  must,  subject  to  suggestion,  exercise  his  own 
powers  of  choice,  must  respond  in  his  own  way  to  stimulation. 
School  or  teacher  can  make  materials  available,  provide 
suggestive  leads,  and  impose  a  general  requirement  as  to 
disposal  of  time.  In  a  class  or  conference  group  formed  to 
promote  developmental  readings,  probably  the  most  effica- 
cious procedure  would  be  to  present  to  the  group  at  the 
beginning  of  a  term,  or  preferably  quarter,  a  series  of  topics, 
many  more  than  the  available  time  permits  to  be  taken  up, 
including,  where  convenient,  topics  centering  in  particular 
books.  Let  the  group  note,  first,  its  provisional  choice  of 
topics,  then  their  order.  For  each  topic  a  varied  and  ex- 
tensive list  of  readings  should  be  available,  from  which 
members  of  the  class  could  choose. 

Probably  the  only  compulsions  desirable  for  this  type  of 
work  are  these : 

a.   Each  student  will  be  required  to  take  a  minimum 


220  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

number  of  beta  units  each  year  in  some  field  offered  by  the 
school  —  say  30  out  of  a  total  minimum  normal  requirement 
of  72  alpha  and  beta  units  for  three  quarters  (180  days,  8 
hours  daily,  a  unit  being  60  school  hours). 

b.  The  teacher  should  have  the  right  to  exclude  from  a 
conference  group  any  learner  who  does  not  conform  to 
essential  standards  of  behavior  and  cooperative  effort  in 
conferences. 

Topics  for  reading  in  civic  education  should  be  selected 
first  because  they  are  of  contemporary  interest  and  second 
because  each  contributes  something  to  the  idealisms,  appre- 
ciations, and  insights  valuable  to  a  citizen.  (Completeness 
can  never  be  attained.  Hence,  as  in  our  own  daily  reading, 
some  discursiveness  must  be  tolerated,  and  diversity  among 
individuals  encouraged.)  Among  fruitful  topics  to  be  con- 
sidered where  reading  matter  is  available  for  Grades  8  to  11 
might  well  be  many  like  the  following: 

Men  influential  in  business  leadership   The  disappearance  of  the  frontier 

during  last  half  century  The  banking  service 

Immigration,  old  and  new  Mail  order  stores 

Poverty  in  America  and  other  Mexico  and  the  United  States 

countries  Cooperation  of  farmers 

Various  opinions  about  wars  The  story  of  cement  and  concrete 

The  settlement  of  public  lands  The  story  of  steel 

Recent  history  of  agriculture  The  story  of  meat  packing 
Present-day  commerce  of  the  United     King  Cotton 

States  Trade  unionism  in  America 

The  negroes  of  America  Our  forests 

Oriental  immigration  American  water  power 

City  vs.  countryside  The  story  of  coal  mining 

The  automobile  —  its  rise  and  Socialism 

influence  State  universities 

Newspapers  —  their  history  and  Story  of  oil 

their  use  The  Department  of  Agriculture 
The  rise  of  great  cities 

Art  agencies.  The  enormous  vogue  of  the  photo-drama 
as  well  as  of  photographic  and  other  illustrations  in  maga- 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDI  CATION     221 

zines  suggests  the  probability  that  these  may  be  made  to 
serve  increasingly  important  functions  in  civic  education 
analogous  to  those  of  the  readings  referred  to  above.  Paint- 
ing and  the  photo-drama  obviously  can  be  made  to  effect 
marked  changes  in  feelings  as  well  as  in  understanding. 
Illustration  often  moves  the  feelings  as  well  as  conveys 
information  of  a  factual  character. 

It  is  well  known  to  all  students  of  social  sciences  that  music 
has  played  a  large  part  in  the  history  of  the  race  in  kindling 
social  appreciations  and  ideals  and  in  effecting  the  feeling 
states  that  largely  condition  behavior.  Concrete  examples  of 
this  can  be  found  in  the  music  designed  to  promote  religious 
attitudes,  patriotic  attitudes  and  behavior,  specific  forms  of 
economic  cooperation,  and  also  the  socialization  of  large 
groups. 

But  the  extensive  use  in  the  future  of  the  emotional  appeals 
of  music  for  purposes  of  civic  education  or  to  produce  civic 
behavior  seems  very  problematical.  Possibly  in  time  of 
national  danger  peoples  will  hereafter,  as  in  the  past,  speedily 
resort  to  music  as  means  of  patriotic  appeal  to  unaccustomed 
forms  of  cooperative  endeavor.  Apart  from  this  there  seem 
to  be  few  assurances  that  the  needs  or  objectives  of  the  larger 
forms  of  social  conduct  can  be  explicitly  promoted  by  music. 
Nevertheless,  the  entire  field  requires  examination  by  some 
one  who  is  a  competent  student  both  in  the  field  of  community 
music  and  in  the  field  of  social  behavior. 

It  is  claimed  by  some,  for  example,  that  "community 
music  "  may  act  as  a  solvent  of  industrial  differences  in  such 
a  way  as  to  prepare  the  soil  for  specific  forms  of  useful  co- 
operation. Possibly  this  may  be  so  where  the  local  population 
is  composed  of  very  heterogeneous  elements.  But  it  seems 
questionable  whether  similar  results  will  follow  easily  in  the 
community  composed  largely  of  persons  of  the  same  speech, 
habits  of  living,  and  economic  interests.   Here  it  may  be  that 


222  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

sophistication  and  long  acquaintance  will  preclude  the 
practicability  of  any  easy  smoothing  over  of  deep-seated 
differences. 

"problem"  methods 

Future  studies  of  the  psychology  of  learning  will  probably 
establish  the  very  great  importance  of  the  "problem  method" 
in  several  of  the  subjects  taught  in  the  upper  grades  and  high 
schools.  The  method  has  long  been  employed  to  a  degree  in 
mathematics  and  physics,  where,  however,  its  usefulness  has 
been  seriously  diminished  through  the  general  use  of  fictitious 
rather  than  realistic  problems.  Recent  advances  in  the  teach- 
ing of  these  subjects  center,  indeed,  in  attempts  to  substitute 
"problems  from  life"  for  the  imaginary  and  often  bizarre 
problems  heretofore  invented  for  purposes  of  illustration  or 
exercise. 

The  social-science  subjects  are  now,  as  before  stated,  taught 
in  the  main  by  "didactic"  methods.  But  the  actual  applica- 
tion of  social-science  knowledge  in  governmental  and  other 
"large  group"  policies  by  citizens  commonly  involves  the 
solution  of  "problems"  no  less  than  do  practical  applications 
of  mathematics  and  the  natural  sciences.  The  problem 
method  should,  therefore,  prove  no  less  superior  in  civic 
education  than  in  the  other  fields  where  it  is  now  developing. 

Current  enthusiasms  for  the  "project  method"  have  led 
undiscriminating  writers  so  to  distend  the  meaning  of  the 
word  "project"  as  to  include  all  kinds  of  realistic  problems. 
But  this  misuse  of  terminology  can  hardly  last.  The  problem 
method  is  not  the  project  method,  and  each  has  its  distinctive 
field.  Useful  distinctions  can  be  observed  everywhere  in  life. 
Many  citizens  undertake,  from  time  to  time,  what  are  truly 
"civic  projects"  —  from  the  formation  of  a  new  party  to 
driving  out  a  political  boss,  from  effecting  a  reform  in  voting 
to  the  passage  of  a  new  statute.    But  many  times  more 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     223 

numerous  are  the  "problems"  every  conscientious  voter  has 
to  solve  at  election  and  other  times  in  deciding  which  of  two 
or  more  alternative  courses  he  should  take  in  registering  his 
vote  or  influencing  others. 

The  validity  or  usefulness  of  the  problem  method  in 
civic  education  rests  on  these  grounds: 

(a)  That  every  individual  beyond  the  age  of  infancy  pos- 
sesses in  fact  a  rich  social  experience  as  a  result  of  environ- 
mental contacts;  (6)  that  most  of  the  interpretations  and  eval- 
uations of  these  experiences  are  now  made  by  the  individual  on 
the  basis  of  personal  impulse  and  social  imitation;  (c)  that  in 
ordinary  social  life,  even  where  such  interpretations  and 
evaluations  tend  to  become  rational,  they  nevertheless  long 
remain  heavily  biased  by  dogmas,  creeds,  and  doctrinaire 
formulae  because  of  partisan  suggestions;  and  (d)  that  it  is 
in  a  measure  practicable  for  schools  to  help  the  student  inter- 
pret and  evaluate  such  social  experience  rationally,  and 
increasingly  in  accordance  with  scientific  standards. 

Problem  methods  therefore  presuppose  the  organization  of 
so  much  of  the  learner's  social  experience  as  will  enable  him 
to  appreciate  the  existence  of  problems,  followed  by  the 
directed  analysis  of  these  by  means  of  a  series  of  questions 
designed  to  promote  evaluations  and  also  to  bring  out 
provisional  interpretations  that  might  seem  more  or  less 
contradictory.  It  is  assumed  that  with  the  aid  of  the  teacher 
progress  can  easily  be  made  toward  some  correct  evaluations 
in  so  far  as  the  state  of  present  knowledge  permits  these  to  be 
reached.  Since  in  many  cases  no  final  and  permanently  valid 
interpretations  are  as  yet  possible,  the  desirable  objectives 
of  this  method  of  instruction  may  well  include  some  deliberate 
fostering  of  attitudes  of  suspended  judgment,  as  well  as 
convictions  on  the  part  of  learners  that  unsuspected  causal 
factors  are  involved  in  the  problems.  These  may  be  illustrated 
by  examples. 


224  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

Let  it  be  assumed  that  as  means  we  possess  for  the  use  of 
the  pupil  an  analysis  like  that  given  below,  each  question 
being  followed  by  blank  spaces  in  which  the  learner  would 
write  provisional  answers  as  far  as  his  experience  would  then 
permit.  These  could  then  be  assembled  and  discussed  in 
conference  and  corrections  made,  in  so  far  as  concerted 
judgment  could  then  be  had.  Where  uncertain  elements  still 
remain  these  could  be  characterized  as  unsettled  problems, 
some  of  which  obviously  may  have  to  remain  unsettled  for 
the  individual  throughout  his  lifetime.  Let  it  be  assumed 
that  we  are  dealing  with  ninth-grade  pupils  in  a  "social 
problems"  course  in  a  typical  urban  manual  working-class 
environment. 

A.  Problems  of  Poverty 

1 .  Each  member  of  the  class  will  draw  upon  his  experience 
until  he  finds  a  typical  case  that  can  be  characterized  as  a 
"poor  family"  as  to  which  the  following  questions  can  be 
answered : 

a.  In  what  ways  and  to  what  extent  does  the  poverty  of 
this  family  seem  to  have  been  due  to  catastrophe  —  fire, 
death,  robbery,  severe  illness,  fraud,  or  war? 

b.  To  what  extent  and  in  what  ways  does  the  poverty  of 
the  family  seem  to  have  been  due  to  low  earning  power  on 
the  part  of  the  man,  owing  to  accidental  causes  over  which 
he  has  had  little  control  —  sickness,  lack  of  employment, 
financial  depression,  and  the  like? 

c.  To  what  extent  does  the  poverty  seem  to  arise  from 
lack  of  earning  power  due  to  the  fact  that  the  man  is  of 
inferior  natural  ability,  intelligence,  or  other  qualities? 

d.  To  what  extent  does  the  poverty  seem  to  be  due  to 
inferior  earning  power  because  the  man  had  not  learned  a 
trade  or  lacks  some  necessary  adjunct  to  success  such  as 
thrift  or  ability  to  market  his  product? 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     225 

e.  To  what  extent  does  the  poverty  seem  to  be  due  to 
the  large  size  of  the  family,  to  their  extravagant  habits,  or  to 
their  failure  in  ordinary  thrift? 

/.  In  summary,  show  to  what  extent  the  poverty  of 
the  family  seems  to  be  due  to  causes  that  could  be  called 
"natural"  and  quite  apart  from  the  individuals  themselves. 

g.  Similar  summary  of  a  series  of  analyses  involving 
causes  of  poverty  found  in  individuals  themselves  —  idleness, 
intemperance,  instability,  irascibility,  etc. 

h.  Similar  summary  of  causes  that  are  essentially  moral 
in  the  family  itself. 

i.  Similar  summary  of  causes  for  which  society  as  a 
whole  or  some  large  groups  therein  seem  responsible. 

2.  Large  parts  of  India  are  very  densely  populated.  It  is 
said  that  little  progress  has  yet  been  made  in  agriculture  by 
modern  methods.  These  regions  are  subject  to  occasional 
drought.  On  the  whole  the  population  is  regarded  as 
being  very  poor.  Answer  these  questions  as  well  as  practi- 
cable : 

a.  What  are  the  causes  of  the  poverty  of  these  people 
that  must  be  ascribed  to  natural  limitations  in  their  environ- 
ment? 

b.  What  are  the  causes  of  their  poverty  due  to  their  own 
large  numbers? 

c.  What  are  the  causes  of  their  poverty  due  to  their 
backwardness  in  agricultural  methods? 

d.  What  are  the  causes  of  their  poverty  due  probably  to 
misgovernment? 

e.  What  will  probably  be  the  best  means  of  preventing 
famines  and  extreme  poverty  in  the  future? 

3.  In  what  ways  does  it  appear  that  the  poverty  of  persons 
of  low  natural  ability  can  be  prevented  in  the  future  by: 
(a)  better  general  education;  (b)  better  vocational  education; 
(c)  better  training  in  thrift? 


226  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

4.  In  what  ways  does  it  seem  that  the  poverty  of  Ameri- 
cans can  be  diminished  in  the  future  by:  (a)  the  progress  of 
science  and  invention;  (6)  families  of  smaller  average  size; 
(c)  improved  agriculture;  (d)  more  and  better  railroads; 
(e)  more  savings-banks  deposits;  (/)  more  foreign  trade? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  effects  on  conditions  of  poverty 
that  may  be  expected  to  come  from:  (a)  increased  immigra- 
tion; (6)  heavier  taxation;  (c)  destruction  of  forests;  (d)  the 
crowding  of  peoples  into  cities;  (e)  poor  government;  (/)  war? 

6.  What  seems  to  be  the  relation  of  poverty  to  the 
accumulation  of  very  large  fortunes,  when  such  fortunes,  as 
well  as  a  large  part  of  the  interest  thereon,  are  kept  con- 
stantly invested  rather  than  spent? 

B.  Other  Sources  of  Problems 

Adapted  to  this  same  group  of  learners  could  readily  be 
devised  problems  centering  about  such  topics  as  these: 

Colonial  government,  collective  or  state  management  of 
public  utilities,  the  organization  of  labor,  functions  of 
representatives  in  republican  government,  private  ownership 
of  property,  child  labor,  over-production,  cooperation  of 
farmers,  treatment  of  crime,  taxation,  public  ownership  of 
forests,  territorial  supervision  of  production,  large  fortunes, 
free  education,  rural  mail  service,  relief  of  the  poor,  and 
literally  hundreds  of  others. 

C.  Economic  Problems 

1.  Assume  tenth-grade,  second-year  high  school  class, 
electing  a  course  in  Economic  Problems.  The  course  would 
be  organized  about  these  principles: 

a.  Economic  problems  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  civic 
problems  of  present  and  future. 

b.  Many    economic    problems,    like    many    problems    in 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     227 


mathematics  and  physics,  are  far  too  difficult  for  the  mental 
powers  and  experience  of  high  school  students. 

c.  Some  economic  problems,  like  some  problems  in 
mathematics  and  physics,  are  well  within  the  mental  powers 
and  easily  acquired  experience  of  high  school  pupils,  even  of 
ninth  and  tenth  grades. 

d.  Those  problems  only  should  be  selected  for  study  which 
are  related  to,  and  are  interpretative  of,  problems  about  which 
serious  issues  and  divisions  of  opinion  now  exist  or  are  likely 
to  exist. 

e.  Where  problems  now  divide  men  of  substantially  equal 
intelligence  and  social  good  will  into  opposed  parties,  the 
school  must  carefully  refrain  from  taking  sides,  confining  its 
efforts  as  far  as  practicable,  without  arousing  intense  antago- 
nisms, to  setting  forth  the  contentions  of  both  sides. 

The  approach  to  these  problems  should  be  made  first  by 
considering,  quite  apart  from  learners'  capacities,  those 
problems  that  are  now  acute.  Then,  by  processes  of  elimina- 
tion, find  specific  problems  or  phases  of  problems  adapted 
to  the  capacities  of  learners. 

2.  The  following  are  some  of  the  topics  in  economics  from 
which  may  readily  be  drawn  problems  suited  to  tenth  grades : 

Power  production     Foreign  trade 

Cooperation  Public  utilities 

Factory  system 

Credit 

War 

Competition 

Middlemen 

Corporations 

Trade  unionism 

Gold 

Tariffs 


Private  property 
Insurance 
Taxation 
Public  property 
Capital 
Raw  resources 
Collective  consump- 
tion 
Wages 
Rent 
Hand  production 


Monopoly 

Population 

Immigration 

Minimum    wage 
laws 

Women  in  indus- 
try 

Vocational  educa- 
tion 


3.   When  those  problems  have  been  selected  that  are  in 
part  at  least  within  the  comprehension  of  the  group  or  level 


228  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

of  learners  under  consideration,  their  debatable  aspects  or 
issues  should  be  brought  into  relief.  The  more  abstract 
designation  of  the  areas  to  be  considered  might  well  be 
reserved  for  teachers  only.  Sound  pedagogy  would  usually 
involve :  (a)  bringing  to  the  attention  of  pupils  at  the  outset 
those  problems  coming  nearest  to  their  home  or  community 
experience;  (b)  assembly  of  facts  of  general  knowledge; 
(c)  assembly  of  principles  upon  which  a  large  proportion  of 
well-informed  men  are  substantially  agreed;  (d)  approach 
to  the  critical  issues.  As  an  example  take  "wages  as  payment 
for  labor." 

The  teacher  is  aware  that  there  are  many  problems  in  the 
economics  of  wages  as  to  which  there  exists  no  agreement 
even  among  experts.  These  can  be  raised  where  necessary 
and  their  various  aspects  discussed.  Abstract  principles  will 
be  kept  in  reserve  until  needed  in  connection  with  concrete 
issues. 

Problems  of  social  justice  which  acutely  concern  or  in- 
terest most  learners  will  probably  include  many  like  the 
following  (the  phrase  "Is  it  right"  is  conveniently  assumed 
to  derive  from  accepted  standards  of  "social  justice"): 

a.  Is  it  right  that  unskilled  workers  should  receive  lower 
wages  than  skilled  workers? 

b.  Is  it  right  that  a  woman  should  take  less  wages  for 
certain  work  than  a  man  with  a  family  would  require  for 
the  same  work? 

c.  Is  it  right  that  wages  should  be  paid,  not  at  a  fixed  rate 
per  day,  but  in  proportion  to  work  done? 

d.  Is  it  right  that  a  man  with  a  large  family  should  receive 
only  the  same  wages  as  a  single  man? 

e.  Is  it  right  that  brain  workers  should  be  paid  more  than 
handworkers? 

/.  Is  it  right  that  a  minimum  wage  should  be  fixed  by  law 
so  that  no  one  would  be  allowed  to  work  for  less? 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     229 

g-m.    (Many  others.) 

4.  The  problems  being  before  the  pupils,  no  final  judg- 
ments should  be  sought  until  miscellaneous  experience 
possessed  by  the  class  is  assembled,  interpreted,  and  trans- 
lated. Such  questions  as  the  following  would  help  in  this 
process : 

a.  What  kinds  of  occupations  of  which  you  know  do  not 
pay  in  wages  (homemakers,  farmers,  small  shopkeepers)? 

b.  Are  there  any  essential  differences  between  salaries 
and  wages?  between  day's  wages  and  piece-work  wages? 

c.  Are  doctors'  fees  practically  the  same  as  wages? 
waiters'  tips? 

d.  Do  not  most  of  the  men  in  any  city  now  work  for  wages? 

e.  What  kinds  of  men  and  women  workers  now  receive 
the  highest  wages,  salaries,  or  fees? 

/.   What  kinds  the  lowest? 

D.  Social  Problems 

It  will  often  happen  that  better  results  can  be  had  by 
organizing  courses  around  "social  problems"  rather  than 
economic  problems  alone,  since  it  is  now  apparent  that 
elements  are  often  involved  which  are  not  strictly  economic. 
The  following  are  topics  that  suggest  a  variety  of  such 
possible  problems : 

The  rights  of  labor 
Model  milk  supplies 
The  rights  of  men  accused  of  crime 
The  rights  of  the  public  to  pure  food 
The  care  of  homeless  children 
Mothers'  pensions  and  the  home 
Enforcement  of  compulsory  school  attendance 
Cooperation  of  business  men  in  city  government 
The  purposeful  restriction  of  immigration 
WThat  kinds  of  equality  are  essential  in  business  organiza- 
tion 


230  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

Government  by  party 

Problems  of  limiting  private  property 

The  localization  of  manufacturing  industries 

Freedom  of  contract 

Governmental  supervision  of  marriage 

Social  control  of  domestic  relations 

The  family  as  an  earning  unit 

Causes  of  divorce 

Effect  of  broken  homes  on  juvenile  delinquency 

Courts  of  domestic  relations 

Problems  of  primaries 

The  short  ballot 

Proportional  representation 

Corrupt  election  practices 

The  spoils  system 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  direct  legislation 

The  use  of  the  recall 

Freedom  of  speech  and  thought 

Rights  to  bear  arms 

Rights  of  negroes 

Rights  and  liberties  of  employees 

Problems  of  jury  trial 

Problems  of  prison  labor 

Prison  reform 

Methods  of  taxation 

Standards  of  city  government 

Selection  and  training  of  city  administrators 

City  planning 

Progress  of  good  housing 

Improvement  of  water  fronts 

City  water  supply 

Public  baths  and  swimming 

Street  construction 

County  unit  of  administration 

Appointment  and  tenure  of  judges 

Uniform  legislation 

The  amendment  of  the  constitution 

Method  of  national  legislation 

Administrative  centralization  in  national  government 

Education  and  care  of  defectives 

Public  sanitation 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     231 

Disposal  of  waste 
Prohibition  of  liquor  traffic 
Problems  of  child  labor 
Women  in  industry- 
Industrial  accidents 
Problems  of  unemployment 
Governmental  regulation  of  business 
National  aid  in  road  construction 
Public  control  of  railways 
Changing  values  of  money 
Agricultural  credit 
Improvement  of  river  commerce 
Postal  savings  banks 

National  aid  in  dealing  with  agricultural  pests 
The  Public  Weather  Bureau  Service 
Water  conservation 
Conservation  of  waterpower 
Negotiations  of  treaties 
Promotion  in  the  army 
National  defense 

E.  Problems  of  Specific  Aim 

Americans  14-16  years  of  age  are  just  at  the  beginnings 
of  conscious  citizenship  —  that  is,  of  conscious  membership 
in  social  groups  larger  than  the  family  and  neighborhood. 
There  are  still  many  civic  problems  with  which  they  can 
have  no  responsible  concern  until  they  are  much  older;  but 
there  are  many  others  that  they  can  begin  to  consider  now, 
because  of  the  concreteness  of  their  "appreciative"  experi- 
ence, as  reached  through  local  social  contacts. 

Is  the  young  citizen  naturally  interested  in  ethical  ques- 
tions, especially  when  they  touch,  but  do  not  blend  with,  his 
own  conduct?  For  example,  which  of  the  following  questions 
might  well  serve  as  "key  approaches"  to  important  ethical 
problems  for  these  learners? 

Kinds  of  problems.  Should  pupils  be  asked  to  consider 
pros  and  cons  of  problems  like  the  following,  in  response 


232  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

to  fundamental  questions?    The  approach  may  be  made 
through  the  general  formula,  "Is  it  right  that": 

Men  should  be  hanged  for  crimes? 

Boys  under  16  should  be  sent  to  jail  for  what  the  law  calls 

felonies? 
A  man  should  have  an  income  of  a  million  dollars  a  year? 
Majorities  should  settle  matters  and  coerce  minorities? 
Men   should   use   streets   who   have   not   paid   anything 

toward  making  them? 
Incomes  should  be  taxed? 

Blind  people  should  be  compelled  to  earn  their  own  livings? 
A  man's  property  should  be  forcibly  taken  by  a  railroad 

line,  he  being  compensated  therefor? 
Men  without  licenses  should  be  prevented  from  practicing 

medicine? 
Sale  of  liquor  should  be  prohibited? 
Immigration  of  Chinese  should  be  prevented? 
Poor  people  should  pay  no  taxes? 
Interest  should  be  charged  for  loans? 
Landlords  should  charge  whatever  rent  they  can  get? 
Textbooks  should  be  supplied  to  pupils  free? 
Mails  should  be  censored  in  war  time? 
Movies  should  be  censored? 

Small  groups  of  men  should  own  large  factories  or  mines? 
It  should  be  so  difficult  to  amend  the  Constitution? 
Religious  denominations  should  be  allowed  to  maintain 

their  own  schools? 
Drunken  men  should  be  arrested  and  put  in  jail  or  fined? 
Conscientious  objectors  should  be  sent  to  jail  in  war  time? 
A  man  should  be  compelled  to  pay  school  taxes  when  he 

has  no  children  to  educate? 
Children  of  poor  parents  should  have  to  leave  school  at  14? 
People  who  cannot  pay  rent  should  be  evicted? 
A  man  should  refuse  to  belong  to  any  political  party  if  he 

desires? 
A  man  should  elect  to  change  to  another  party  after  some 

years  in  the  first  party? 
A  man  should  vote  against  the  nominee  of  his  party? 
A  man  should  refuse  to  be  a  soldier  because  he  does  not 

believe  in  war? 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION     233 

A  man  should  live  on  an  inheritance,  doing  no  other  work 

than  looking  after  investments? 
A  rich  man  should  hold  a  public  job? 
A    man    should  hold  a  lot  vacant  in   a  city  for  rising 

values? 
A  city  should  require  uniform  fares  on  street  cars  for  long 

and  for  short  distances? 
An  employer  should  be  free  to  dismiss  workers  when  he 

thinks  he  can  get  better  ones? 
A   grocer  should  charge  what  he  can  get  when  food  is 

scarce? 
Rich   people   should    use    flowers    lavishly   at    entertain- 
ments? 
Rich  people  should  keep  many  servants  in  war  times?  in 

peace  times? 
A  man  should  refuse  to  obey  what  he  thinks  is  a  bad  law? 
A  pupil  should  refuse  to  tell  on  a  classmate  who  has  done 

wrong? 
Men  in  chronically  poor  health  should  not  marry? 
Men  should  refuse  to  read  newspapers? 
A  farmer  unable  to  look  fully  after  a  big  farm  should  leave 

half  of  it  permanently  idle? 
A  man  with  a  small  income  and  four  small  children  should 

refuse  to  support  his  dependent  father?  aunt?  cousin? 
Negroes  should  be  compelled  to  ride  in  separate  cars  from 

whites? 
The  skilled  workers  in  a  trade  should  limit  the  number  of 

persons  who  may  be  permitted  to  learn  that  trade? 
A  man  should  refuse  to  employ  a  physician  for  his  very  sick 

child  because  he  does  not  believe  in  the  use  of  medicine 

to  heal  the  sick? 
A  representative  in  Congress  or  a  legislature  should  vote 

as  he  thinks  his  constituents  want  him  to  vote,  although 

in  his  judgment  that  way  is  wrong? 
A  representative  in  Congress  or  a  legislature  should  vote 

according  to  his  own  convictions  even  when  he  thinks  his 

constituents  want  him  to  vote  the  other  way? 
A  government  should  aid  the  business  men  of  the  country 

in  competing  with  the  business  men  of  another  country? 
A  country  should  impose  heavy  protective  tariffs  on  the 

products  of  another  country? 


234  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

F.  The  "Case  Problem"  Method 
The  "case  problem"  method  involves  bringing  to  the 
attention  of  pupils  one  or  more  social  cases  or  realistic  situa- 
tions from  which  naturally  grow  problems  analogous  to  those 
found  in  political  life.  These  cases  may  well  be  hypothetical 
but  should  correspond  closely  to  actual  conditions,  as  do 
"cases"  in  law  schools.   For  example: 

Hypothetical  (or  realistic)  Case.  In  a  certain  state  are  about 
5000  square  miles  of  hilly  and  mountainous  country  which 
were  once  covered  with  dense  forest.  In  early  days  much  of 
this  land  was  given  as  grants  by  colonial  or  state  governments 
to  individuals  or  corporations  who  began  cutting  wood  and 
lumber  on  it.  Lumbering  proceeded  later  at  a  rapid  rate 
until  the  old  forests,  had  disappeared.  When  such  a  forest  is 
cleared  and  no  fires  follow,  shrubbery  springs  up  and  within 
twenty  or  more  years  a  new  growth  of  trees  can  be  cut  off. 
However,  the  present  owners  of  the  land  plant  no  trees,  and 
when  they  are  lumbering  they  cannot  afford  (so  they  think) 
to  clear  up  the  waste  products  as  they  take  away  the  logs, 
in  such  a  way  that  fires  can  be  prevented.  For  two  or  three 
years  following  such  fires  the  rains  and  melting  snows  sluice 
much  of  the  soft  soil,  including  the  rich  "humus,"  down  into 
the  streams,  where  it  is  lost  forever.  This  washing  away  of 
the  soil  fills  up  some  lower  river  channels  and  causes  floods, 
but  the  greatest  damage  is  the  depletion  of  the  mountain 
lands  for  future  generations. 

1.  Readings  can  be  suggested,  showing  the  history  of 
similar  situations  in  China,  Palestine,  California;  of  the 
tree-planting  experiences  of  France,  Germany,  southern 
California;  and  as  to  present  governmental  policies  in  New 
England,  the  Appalachians,  the  Western  Forest  Reserves, 
etc. 

2.  Specific  problems,  in  part  of  applying  such  knowledge  as 
the  pupils  now  possess  to  the  disentanglement  of  some  of 


MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION      23.5 

the  questions  involved,  and  in  part  of  "working  out"  par- 
ticular difficulties,  could  then  be  provided.    For  example: 

a.  Is  it  right  that  the  owners  of  this  land  should  be  free  to 
do  as  they  will  with  it? 

b.  Should  the  state  or  nation  compel  them  to  adopt 
expensive  methods  of  lumbering  or  replanting  without  giving 
compensation? 

c.  Is  the  state  justified  in  buying  such  land  under  rights  of 
eminent  domain ' '  ? 

d.  Scores  of  other  useful  questions  could  be  devised. 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  main  this  is  the  method 
now  used  by  conscientious  and  self-informing  citizens  in 
arriving  at  final  decisions  as  to  sound  policies. 


CHAPTER  ELEVEN 

Courses  of  Study  for  Civic  Education 

For  administrative  purposes  the  "means  and  methods" 
of  any  systematized  form  of  instruction  or  training  are  con- 
veniently organized  into  subjects  and  courses.  In  the 
general  field  of  civic,  as  in  physical,  education  it  is  to  be 
expected  that  terminology  will  remain  flexible,  perhaps  often 
indeterminate,  for  some  years,  owing  to  uncertainties  as  to 
valid  objectives. 

Subjects.  It  is,  of  course,  correct  to  designate  as  "sub- 
jects," American  history,  civics,  and  economics.  But 
"courses"  in  these  adapted  to  particular  ends  of  civic  edu- 
cation, and  again  adapted  to  the  varying  maturities,  abilities, 
and  environments  of  pupils,  will  require  carefully  descriptive 
designations  if  they  are  to  serve  a  useful  purpose. 

But  the  term  "subject"  applies  very  inadequately  to 
certain  other  obviously  valuable  means  of  civic  education. 
Scouting,  civic  readings,  dramatic  projects,  case  problem 
economies,  and  social  problems  will  have  to  be  offered  as 
"courses"  unless  some  more  acceptable  term  can  be  found. 

In  this  chapter  the  word  "course"  will  therefore  be  freely 
used  to  designate  a  portion  of  a  subject  or  a  somewhat 
systematized  grouping  of  activities  in  a  field  that  is  only  by 
courtesy  to  be  called  a  subject.  Many  of  the  courses  referred 
to  will  be  of  the  "short  unit"  variety  —  that  is,  they  may 
extend  only  four,  six,  or  eight  weeks,  instead  of  over  a  half- 
year  or  year  as  has  often  been  customary  in  the  past. 

In  the  light  of  present  experience  the  following  inferences 
are  submitted  as  to  courses  in  civic  education  that  might  well 
be  provided,  in  some  cases  on  an  experimental  basis,  in 
progressive  schools  during  the  next  few  years.  These  in- 
ferences are  necessarily  still  tentative.  They  seem  to  the 
writer  the  logical  outcome  of  the  findings  in  previous  chapters 

236 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  FOR  CIVIC  EDUCATION      237 

as  to  the  needs,  conditions,  and  methods  of  civic  education. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  certain  that  only  well-planned  and  carefully 
executed  experimentation  can  finally  give  us  effective  courses. 
It  is  assumed  that  in  the  first  six  grades  no  "departmental" 
or  specialized  teaching  service  is  provided.  In  Grades  7  to 
12,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  expected  that  all  phases  of  or- 
ganized social  education  in  a  given  school  will  be  concentrated 
in  the  hands  of  one  or  two  departmental  teachers. 

FIRST  SIX  GRADES 

1.  For  children  from  6  to  9  years  of  age,  let  us  assume 
a  school  day  of  six  hours  (to  include  one  or  two  hours' 
supervised  physical  play).  Of  this  time  20  per  cent  might 
well  be  given  to  social  education.  Some  of  the  possible 
objectives  of  social  education  for  these  grades  will  be  achieved 
through  large  correlations  with  games,  discipline,  general 
reading,  and  possible  practical-arts  projects,  language  studies, 
and  the  like.  The  20  per  cent  time  allotment  given  indicates 
the  "weight"  to  be  attached  to  objectives  of  purposive 
social  education,  even  where  these  are  realized  through 
correlations  with  other  studies.  Short  courses  in  the  follow- 
ing are  recommended : 

a.  Dramatized  projects  —  festivals,  masques,  etc.  —  of 
kinds  now  well  developed  in  all  progressive  schools.  With 
these  may  be  included  training  in  flag  salutes,  and  patriotic 
singing.  The  literature  of  primary  education  now  abounds  in 
serviceable  examples. 

b.  A  very  few  genuine  service  projects  are  practicable  for 
these  ages.  Those  practicable  will  center  largely  in  main- 
tenance of  school  order  and  cleanliness,  but  may  include  a  few 
connecting  with  homes,  and,  rarely,  for  relief  or  commemora- 
tion service  to  community  (as  suggested  by  Red  Cross 
activities).  The  ideals  of  moral,  rather  than  of  civic,  educa- 
tion should  probably  control. 


238  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

c.  Developmental  talks  and  readings,  ranging  from  in- 
spirational tales  of  heroes  and  signal  events,  to  attractively 
given  talks  on  law  observance,  clean  town,  good  citizenship, 
patriotism,  and  the  like. 

d.  Community  civics,  through  exploratory  and  inter- 
pretive contacts  with  accessible  agencies  of  public  or  other 
general  service  in  the  neighborhood  —  including  agencies  of 
government  (post  office,  street  or  highway,  policing,  water 
supply,  fire  protection)  and  private  general  utilities  (stores, 
street  cars,  lighting,  newspapers,  etc.)-  Even  in  the  lower 
grades  much  of  value  can  be  accomplished  through  practi- 
cable short  units,  if  methods  appropriate  to  developmental 
education  are  adhered  to. 

e.  Salient  or  framework  history.  For  these  grades,  definite 
memorization  of  central  facts  (with  appreciations  of  "halo" 
situations)  as  to  perhaps  ten  or  twenty  salient  dates,  names, 
and  events  in  American  history,  together  with  a  smaller 
number  of  those  in  world  history,  should  be  the  goals  of  one 
or  more  "short  unit"  courses  each  year  —  requiring  perhaps 
not  more  than  ten  to  twenty  hours.  Methods  of  study  should 
include  the  use  of  very  simple  chronological  lines,  charts,  or 
other  graphic  devices  of  kinds  that  need  not  be  greatly 
modified  throughout  grades,  but  which  can  be  indefinitely 
extended  and  proliferated. 

2.  For  age  levels  9  to  12,  let  the  "long  school  day" 
be  also  presupposed,  as  well  as  the  allocation  of  about  20  per 
cent  of  time  to  civic  education. 

a.  Dramatic  projects  utilizing  elections,  commemorations, 
simple  pageants,  naturalization,  patriotic  devotion,  all  of 
broader  scope  than  those  suggested  for  earlier  grades. 

b.  Service  or  participation  projects  may  well  include  here 
beginnings  of  purposive  school  government  for  short  periods, 
closing  exercises  of  cooperative  nature,  group  organization 
of  games,  and  possibly,  under  some  circumstances,  "clean 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  FOR  CIVIC  EDUCATION      239 

town  projects,"  simple  relief  projects  for  poor  at  holiday 
time,  Red  Cross  participations,  and  others. 

c.  Exploratory  projects,  visits  to  local  concrete  agencies  of 
government  (fire  protection,  police  headquarters,  street 
repair,  docks,  street  cleaning,  etc.),  and  also  visits  to  agencies 
of  large-scale  production  including  transportation  and 
exchange  —  factories,  cold-storage  plants,  street-car  trans- 
portation, shipping,  department-store  merchandising,  etc. 

d.  Readings.  Periodic  readings  by  teachers  and  of  assign- 
ments by  pupils,  about  founders,  significant  events,  con- 
temporary enterprises,  with  beginnings  of  critical  and 
friendly  evaluation  of  governmental  agencies,  public  utilities, 
and  other  social  mechanisms  affecting  the  local  general 
welfare. 

e.  Social-science  problems.  These  must  await  development 
of  printed  matter  to  guide  teachers.  Sources  are  to  be  found 
in  problems  of  trade,  relief,  street  cleaning,  etc.,  as  they  may 
be  found  accessible  to  learners  of  this  age. 

/.  Salient  or  framework  history  —  key  dates,  events,  and 
a  few  broad  historical  findings  to  be  made  matters  of  memori- 
zation. 

SECOND  SIX  GRADES 

3.  The  really  great  opportunities  for  the  development  of 
genuine  civic  education  in  American  public  schools  are  to  be 
found  between  the  age  levels  of  12  and  18.  It  is  now  agreed 
that  here  departmental  or  specialized  teaching  service  can 
and  will  be  provided  where  necessary.  At  these  levels  it  is 
increasingly  practicable  to  differentiate  pupils  into  groups, 
where  their  best  educational  interests  require  it.  The  educa- 
tional success  of  scouting  and  club  work  are  evidences  of  the 
vitality  of  the  motives  that  have  been  appealed  to  by  these 
agencies.  All  boys  and  girls  under  14  are  now  required  to 
attend  school  full  time  in  all  but  a  very  few  backward  states. 
In  states  representing  far  more  than  half  the  population, 


240  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

part-time  attendance  is  obligatory  to  16,  whilst  in  most 
communities  from  30  to  70  per  cent  of  children  from  14  to  16 
voluntarily  attend  school  full  time. 

Since  we  are  only  in  the  early  stages  of  the  purposive 
development  of  civic  education  for  young  people,  in  the  first 
place  from  12  to  14  years  of  age,  and  next  from  14  to  16  and 
beyond,  it  is  legitimate,  in  proposing  courses  that  must  be 
as  yet  essentially  experimental  in  character,  to  assume  the 
availability  of  optimum  conditions  for  their  first  trial  flights. 
For  the  courses  proposed  below,  therefore,  we  assume  the 
existence,  in  an  educationally  progressive  city,  of  a  central 
junior  high  school  in  which  are  found: 

a.  Fifteen  hundred  pupils,  including  all  pupils  of  seventh 
and  eighth  grade  rank  in  the  district,  as  well  as  all  pupils 
over  12  years  of  age  who  have  not  reached  seventh  grade. 

b.  A  vice-principal  or  department  head  in  charge  of  all 
kinds  and  phases  of  education  intended  to  be  primarily  civic 
in  its  purposes  and  outcomes. 

c.  Teachers  reasonably  well  equipped  to  give  instruction 
in  the  various  social-science  subjects;  and  the  same  or  others 
prepared  to  direct,  lead,  or  train  in  project  and  other  activities 
expected  to  function  toward  civic  powers  and  appreciations. 

d.  Needed  equipment  of  library  reading  materials,  rooms 
for  debating,  facilities  for  scouting,  and  the  like. 

e.  A  school  day  of  eight  hours,  including  not  less  than  two 
hours  for  physical  sports  and  two  other  hours  for  "develop- 
mental" studies  or  activities  of  an  intellectual  or  social 
nature.  To  this  add  the  availability  of  Saturdays  and  even 
holidays,  from  time  to  time,  for  scouting  and  for  service 
projects. 

/.  School  programs  sufficiently  flexible  to  permit  not  only 
the  differentiation  of  pupils  on  basis  of  intelligence,  if  desired, 
but  also  the  reconsolidation  of  these  groups  for  readings, 
scouting,  and  projects  where  differences  of  intelligence  may 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  FOR  CIVIC  EDUCATION      241 

be  less  important  than  similarities  of  ideal,  social  condition, 
or  strong  interests. 

This  large  junior  high  school  will,  in  its  1500  pupils, 
represent  of  course  a  wide  diversity  of  abilities,  environ- 
ments, and  prospects.  Some  will  combine  high  ability  with 
prosperous  home  conditions;  whilst  at  the  opposite  extreme 
some  will  combine  inferior  abilities  with  adverse  home 
influences.  A  certain  number  will  be  the  products  of  high- 
grade  homes,  but  handicapped  in  themselves  by  low  native 
powers;  at  the  other  pole  will  be  found  some  from  very  poor 
homes,  but  endowed  with  superior  abilities. 

The  shrewd  eye  of  prophecy  can  also  detect  broad  differ- 
ences of  future  prospects  already  casting  their  shadows  before 
among  these  1500.  From  two  groups,  and  only  two  groups 
of  those  mentioned  above,  are  likely  to  come  the  future 
professional  men  and  women  as  well  as  the  bulk  of  political 
and  other  "large  group"  leaders.  A  large  proportion  are 
destined  to  be  "just  average"  American  citizens  —  well 
meaning,  indeed,  but  never  very  well  informed,  intensely 
partisan,  or  idealistic.  From  60  to  80  per  cent  of  these 
pupils  will  have  no  school  education  after  16  years  of  age. 

Guiding  principles.  Under  the  conditions  assumed,  and 
with  such  knowledge  as  we  can  now  assemble,  what  courses 
should  be  provided?  What,  if  any,  should  be  prescribed  in 
substance  or  content  for  all  alike?  What,  if  any,  prescribed 
by  title  for  all,  but  with  varying  content  for  different  ability 
or  interest  levels?  The  following  guiding  principles  are  sub- 
mitted for  further  criticism : 

a.  Assuming  that  in  the  two  years  or  grades  of  the  junior 
high  school  there  are  roundly  available  about  3000  hours  for 
all  forms  of  school  education,  there  is  arbitrarily  reserved 
20  per  cent  of  this  or  600  hours  for  all  forms  of  civic  education ; 
and  every  pupil  will  be  required  to  give  that  amount  of 
time  to  this  field. 


242  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

b.  The  offerings  of  civic  education  shall  be  of  several  kinds, 
each  clearly  differentiated  as  to  purpose,  means,  and  methods, 
and  each  organized  on  some  convenient  "short  unit"  basis 
hereafter  to  be  determined  experimentally.  For  present 
purposes  it  will  be  assumed  that  60  hours  will  be  the  measure 
of  a  "short  unit"  course  (the  equivalent  of  one  hour  daily 
for  sixty  school  days  or  twelve  weeks,  which  is  one  third  of 
a  180-day  school  year  or  one  "quarter"  of  the  "four  quarter" 
school  year  which  will  eventually  prevail).  But  it  must  not 
be  assumed  that  a  sixty-hour  course  will  invariably  consist  of 
sixty  one-hour  sessions  distributed  through  sixty  successive 
school  days.  A  scouting  course  of  sixty  hours  might  consist 
of  fifteen  four-hour  meetings  on  fifteen  designated  Saturdays. 
Project  work  and  readings  will  in  any  event  require  much 
greater  flexibility  of  arrangement  than  "framework  history" 
and  civil-government  subjects. 

c.  Offerings  for  civic  education  shall  be  divided  into  two 
categories,  (1)  developmental  and  (2)  projective.  Each  pupil 
must  during  his  two  years  take  not  less  than  three  short 
courses  of  each  type,  and  he  may  not  take  more  than  six 
courses  of  the  developmental  type  unless  his  general  scholar- 
ship is  "superior"  —  on  a  grading  of  excellent,  superior, 
modal,  inferior,  bad;  or  A  (to  include  10  per  cent  of  all 
pupils  under  normal  conditions),  B  (20  per  cent),  C  (40 
per  cent),  D  (20  per  cent),  and  E  (10  per  cent). 

d.  The  following  shall  be  the  projective  offerings: 

(1)  Salient  or  framework  American  history  A 
(elective  by  all  pupils);  30  hours  each  year. 

(2)  Salient  American  history  B  (an  advanced  "  hard  " 
course  recommended  for  pupils  of  superior 
abilities  who  expect  to  remain  several  years  in 
school) ;  60  hours,  eighth  grade. 

(3)  Civil  government  or  formal  civics,  60  hours, 
either  year. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  FOR  CIVIC  EDUCATION      243 

(4)  Social  problems,  adapted  to  seventh-grade 
pupils  of  less  than  average  abilities;  60  hours. 

(5)  Social  problems,  adapted  to  seventh-grade 
pupils  of  more  than  average  abilities;  60  hours. 

(6)  Politico-economic  problems  of  contemporary 
importance  but  studied  with  conscious  reference 
to  historical  origins  and  parallels,  60  hours 
(recommended  for  abler  pupils  in  eighth  grade). 

(7)  Political  or  civic  problems  of  contemporary 
interest  (recommended  for  less  able  pupils  in 
eighth  grade). 

e.   The  following  shall  be  the  "developmental"  offerings: 

(1)  Sixty  hours  of  "service  projects,"  to  be  varied 
from  year  to  year,  and  to  include,  when  condi- 
tions are  favorable,  maintenance  of  school  self- 
government  under  specified  conditions. 

(2)  Sixty  hours  of  scouting. 

(3)  Sixty  hours  of  developmental  readings  in  fields 
of  contemporary  civic  problems. 

(4)  Sixty  hours  of  developmental  readings  in  fields 
of  history  related  to  contemporary  civic  prob- 
lems. 

(5)  Sixty  hours  of  debating  and  civic  dramatization. 

(6)  An  advanced  course  in  economic  readings,  open 
to  gifted  pupils. 

(7)  A  reading  course  in  world  political  history,  open 
to  pupils  of  talent. 

(8)  A  current-events  course  in  politics  for  pupils  of 
less  than  average  abilities. 

4.  The  purposes  and  procedures  suggested  for  the  above 
courses  may  for  the  present  suffice  to  suggest  proposals  foJ 
higher  grades.  "Problem"  courses  will,  of  course,  become 
more  important  and  more  difficult  in  higher  grades.  "  Reading 
courses"   will   certainly   become   more   comprehensive   and 


244  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

serious.  Project  methods  may  prove  less,  rather  than  more, 
available  as  the  "scouting"  age  is  past,  and  it  is  hard  to  see 
much  of  a  future  for  dramatic  projects  between  the  ages  of  15 
and  18.  "Projective"  courses  in  economics,  civics,  and  even 
sociology  are  clearly  practicable  provided  they  are  not  over- 
loaded with  formal  and  needless  detail  —  provided,  that  is, 
that  in  the  minds  of  learners  they  actually  do  function  as 
"framework"  courses. 


CHAPTER  TWELVE 

Problems  of  Research 

Much  research  may  be  expected  in  the  near  future  looking 
to  the  determination  of  society's  needs  for  civic  education, 
the  best  specific  objectives  of  such  education,  and  its  most 
effective  means  and  methods. 

The  appended  suggestions  grow  directly  out  of  the  dis- 
cussions contained  in  the  preceding  pages.  They  are  designed 
in  part  to  indicate  the  scope  and  variety  of  the  problems 
involved. 

Present  possibilities  of  research  in  the  field  of  civic  educa- 
tion include:  (a)  study  of  general  and  specific  needs  of  civic 
education,  school  and  non-school;  (b)  appraisal  of  the  present 
contributions  of  non-school  agencies;  (c)  appraisal  of  contri- 
butions of  civic  by-education  in  schools  through  discipline, 
readings,  sports,  etc.;  (d)  critical  examination  of  American 
and  other  history  studies  as  means  of  civic  education; 
(e)  critical  evaluation  of  "civics/'  "community  civics," 
economics,  and  other  similar  didactic  materials  as  means  of 
civic  education;  (/)  appraisal  of  other  means  now  employed 
in  schools  primarily  toward  civic  education,  including  social- 
service  projects,  dramatic  projects,  pageants,  school  self- 
government,  civic  readings,  etc.;  (g)  proposed  restatement  of 
objectives;  and  (h)  proposed  new  or  reorganized  means  and 
methods. 

THE  "CASE  GROUP"  METHOD 

But  research  along  these  lines,  involving  such  complex 
social  composites  as  the  citizenry  of  a  nation,  province 
(American  state) ,  or  urban  or  rural  municipality,  is  practically 
beyond  resources  now  available.  Such  undertakings  would 
be  analogous  to  chemical  analysis  of  a  shovelful  of  earth, 
biological   analysis   of   an   armful   of   plants,    or   economic 

245 


246  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

analysis  of  the  population  and  activities  of  a  city  —  all  of 
which  were  impracticable  in  the  early  stages  of  these  sciences. 

Partition  or  segregation  of  social  phenomena  is,  therefore, 
necessary  for  research  in  civic  education.  Two  kinds  might 
be  employed,  (a)  Individual  cases  —  a  man,  a  woman,  a 
child  —  might  be  studied,  their  civic  virtues  diagnosed  and 
evaluated,  and  proposed  means  and  methods  of  correcting 
defects  in  present  or  potentially  similar  cases  might  be  de- 
vised, (b)  Since,  however,  civic  behavior,  though  springing 
from  individuals,  usually  operates  and  becomes  significant 
through  groups  of  resembling  individuals,  probably  a  more 
profitable  approach  can  be  found  in  the  study  of  the  prevail- 
ing qualities  of  fairly  homogeneous  case  groups. 

A  case  group  is  here  taken  to  mean  a  group,  class,  level, 
or  other  aggregation  of  individuals  all  of  whom  possess  one 
or  more  defined  qualities  of  resemblance.  For  purposes  of 
case-group  study  any  qualities  may  be  taken  —  sex,  age, 
race,  color,  vocation,  wealth,  intelligence,  habitat,  education, 
religion,  taste,  etc.  For  example:  Case  Group  D.  Skilled 
mechanics  (male)  earning  not  less  than  $1500  or  more  than 
$2500  annually  at  25-40  years  of  age,  of  at  least  one  genera- 
tion American  ancestry,  working  in  the  automobile  indus- 
tries of  Michigan.  Case  Group  E.  Negro  women,  age  30-50, 
working  at  least  200  days  per  year  as  field  hands  in  Alabama, 
averaging  third-grade  schooling.  Case  Group  F.  Men,  college 
graduates,  35-60  years  of  age,  in  commercial  vocations. 
Case  Group  G.  Boys,  17-19  years  of  age,  left  school  at  14, 
average  sixth-grade  schooling,  employed  from  2  to  5  years 
at  good  wages  in  juvenile  vocations.  Case  Group  H.  Girls, 
super-average  intelligence,  ages  12-14,  now  in  seventh  school 
grade;  very  good  home  environment;  will  probably  go 
through  high  school  and  at  least  one  year  in  college;  about 
half  will  marry  before  30,  remainder  will  seek  promotion 
in  professional  or  commercial  work. 


PROBLEMS  OF  RESEARCH  247 

The  segregation  of  case  groups  of  adults  permits  analysis 
and  evaluation  of  civic  qualities  now  found,  from  which 
may  be  derived  findings  as  to  desirable  specific  school  ob- 
jectives of  civic  education  for  next  generation.  For  example, 
making  allowance  for  some  variants,  how  will  Groups  D  and 
F  above  compare  as  regards:  prevailing  patriotism;  interest 
in  economical  and  efficient  expenditure  of  public  funds  by 
governmental  agencies;  devotion  to  public  education;  sup- 
port of  forest  conservation;  promotion  of  social  "destruc- 
tionism";  political  party  activity? 

What  will  be  the  prevailing  "virtues  of  conformity"  of 
Case  Group  F?  What  do  they  know  about  the  tariff  legisla- 
tion, recall  of  officials,  town  planning,  the  League  of  Nations, 
the  promotion  of  better  public  schools?  By  what  standards 
should  we  say  that  these  negresses  are  "prevailingly  good 
citizens"?  "bad  citizens"?  Under  different  educational  con- 
ditions how  should  the  civic  potentialities  of  their  children 
be  expected  to  differ  from  the  present  civic  qualities  of 
Case  Group  H? 

Are  the  members  of  Case  Group  G  now  citizens?  When 
and  how  will  they  probably  become  members  of  political 
parties?  What  are  their  present  prominent  civic  virtues? 
civic  vices?  Into  what  sub-groups  could  they  probably  be 
divided  on  the  basis  of  civic  behavior? 

Sharp  distinctions  must  here  be  made  between  the  needs 
of  research  and  the  needs  of  school  administration.  The 
results  of  case  group  study  may  not  be  immediately  applica- 
ble in  framing  courses  or  other  means  of  civic  education. 
Certainly  this  will  be  the  situation  in  schools  of  highly 
composite  character  —  as  are  usually  junior  and  senior  high 
schools  in  medium-sized  or  small  cities,  and  sometimes  in 
large  cities. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  doubtful  if  any  better  method  can  be 
found  to  carry  us  beyond  present  deductive,  a  priori  proce- 


248  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

dures  in  framing  courses  in  civic  education,  or  toward 
scientific  determination  of  objectives.  No  one  can  prove 
that  present  practices  —  based  chiefly  upon  history  studies 
and  didactic  civics  —  are  effective  as  sources  of  civic  ideals  or 
insights,  except  for  a  small  minority  of  the  more  imaginative 
students. 

Here  again  we  can  profitably  apply  analogies  from  the 
natural  sciences.  Researches  in  chemistry,  electricity, 
agriculture,  bridge-building,  etc.,  are  first  executed  on  a 
laboratory  scale  and  free  from  the  complicating  conditions 
of  commercial  application,  until  details  are  settled;  then 
commercial  applications  can  profitably  be  studied  by  means 
specialized  for  that  purpose.  The  teacher  who  asks  at  the 
outset,  "But  how  could  I  use  that  in  my  school?"  is  like  the 
impatient  child  uprooting  the  seed  at  the  end  of  a  week  "to 
see  if  it  is  growing." 

NEEDS  OF  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

What  are  contemporary  needs  of  civic  education?  Socio- 
logical research  is  readily  practicable  here,  even  for  teachers 
and  others  who  can  give  only  moderate  time  to  it,  provided 
standards  are  not  too  exacting  and  students  are  willing  to 
accept  "common  sense"  formulations  of  social  values. 
Examples : 

(a)  The  war  gave  concrete  tests  of  various  functions  of 
national  patriotism  —  for  young  men,  voluntary  enlistment ; 
for  mothers,  willingness  to  let  their  sons  serve;  for  business 
leaders,  dollar-a-day  service;  for  unionized  laborers,  willing- 
ness to  forgo  strikes;  for  recent  immigrants,  unalloyed 
devotion  to  land  of  adoption,  etc. 

What  harmful  defects  of  the  patriotism  which  should,  in 
war  time,  normally  be  expected  of  the  group,  class,  or  level, 
were  prevailingly  shown  by:  illiterate  men,  40-60,  Kentucky; 
Polish  coal  miners,  20-30,  Pennsylvania;  wives  of  owning 


PROBLEMS  OF  RESEARCH  249 

farmers  of  German  extraction,  Iowa  and  Missouri;  negro 
workingmen,  30-60,  literate  and  fairly  prosperous  in  North- 
ern cities?  other  groups?  Thus  can  be  ascertained  needs  of 
one  type  of  civic  education.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
we  are  constantly  making  such  valuations  now,  as  contribut- 
ing to  public  opinion.  The  proposed  studies  contemplate 
simply  greater  precision  and  less  passion. 

(b)  Recent  legislation  prohibiting  manufacture  or  sale  of 
alcoholic  beverages  encounters  much  opposition  and  tempts 
many  to  lawbreaking.  Do  the  lawless  come  from  some 
distinguishable  social  groups  more  than  from  others?  from 
owning  farmers?  high-school  boys?  educated  women  with 
children?  recent  immigrant  Italian  manual  laborers?  public- 
school  teachers  (men)?  miscellaneous  unskilled  laborers  of 
American  ancestry?  Thus  ascertain  needs  of  a  second  type 
of  civic  education. 

(c)  The  successful  performance  of  political  functions  on  the 
part  of  the  citizen  requires  a  certain  amount  of  uncompen- 
sated service  —  from  two  hours  required  for  voting  to  one 
hundred  or  more  given  to  committee  work,  attending  meet- 
ings, even  helping  in  campaigns.  Subject  to  limitations  in 
their  opportunities,  how  do  the  following  groups  compare  as 
respects  the  amount  of  such  service  they  prevailingly  give: 
men  high-school  teachers;  physicians;  women  homemakers  of 
at  least  high-school  education,  and  family  incomes  of  $6000 
or  more  per  year;  lay  leaders  in  Methodist  churches;  young 
women  clerks  in  department  stores?  Age  levels  and  perhaps 
racial  origins  could  profitably  be  employed  as  bases  of  further 
partition  of  these  groups. 

This  method  is  capable  of  indefinite  extension,  ana- 
lyzing the  behavior  of  any  civic  group  in  respect  to  any 
specific  civic  virtue.  To  the  objections  that  it  is  difficult, 
and  not  fully  conclusive,  it  must  be  replied  in  the  first  place 
that  anv  other  method  seems  still  more  difficult  and  uncertain, 


250  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

if  it  is  to  be  scientific.  What  the  "easy  generalizes "  do  is 
to  pass  judgments  upon  unspecified  or  unbounded  groups. 
"Americans  are  dollar  chasers."  "High-school  pupils  have 
no  respect  for  law."  "Negroes  are  lawless."  "The  Irish- 
Americans  were  not  patriotic  in  the  late  war."  "We  are  not 
a  united  people."  Such  are  the  currency  of  superficial 
thinkers  and  proponents  of  special  aspirations. 

Needs.  What  are  some  of  the  needs  for  more  or  better 
forms  of  civic  education  which  can  properly  be  met  by  the 
schools?  Civic  education  is,  obviously,  largely  a  matter  of 
extra-school  agencies  —  home,  political  parties,  labor  unions, 
newspapers,  etc.  But  some  things  the  schools  —  elementary, 
high,  collegiate  —  can  do  better  than  other  agencies  —  such 
as  giving  perspective  in  American  history,  disentangling 
economic  and  other  social  problems,  perhaps  inspiring  ideals. 
Here  also  many  problems  of  research  can  be  proposed. 

(a)  What  are  defects  of  civic  ideals  now  characteristic  of 
Rocky  Mountain  farmers  against  which  the  best  schools  now 
know  how  to  forearm  the  rising  generation?  Same  for 
prosperous  business  men,  graduates  of  high  schools?  Same 
for  women  school  teachers? 

(6)  Wherein  does  the  "good  citizenship"  of  adult  Jewish 
immigrants  now  aged  30-60,  who  entered  the  country  under 
12  years  of  age,  fall  short  because  of  incomplete  or  distorted 
knowledge  of  American  history?  or  of  the  correlation  of 
American  history  with  that  of  their  parent  land?  From  this 
deduce:  conclusions  as  to  kinds  of  "special"  history  study 
desirable  for  children  of  specific  classes  of  immigrants. 

The  foregoing  inquiries  apply  to  what  might  be  called  the 
historic  "civic  virtues"  —  those  that  contributed  to  the  good 
citizenship  of  1776,  1812,  1861,  as  well  as  that  of  today.  But 
inquiries  should  also  be  made  as  to  the  "new"  virtues 
required  by  our  altered  "large  group"  social  conditions.  It 
is  commonplace  that  our  municipal  organizations,  our  inter- 


PROBLEMS  OF  RESEARCH  251 

national  connections,  our  internal  economic  interdependence, 
and  many  other  of  our  public  or  quasi-public  relationships 
have  become  increasingly  complex  in  geometrical  ratio,  since 
1870.  Presumably  these  impose  new  strains  on  citizenship 
and  new  demands  on  civic  education. 

But  here  we  are  in  terribly  complex  fields  of  sociological 
investigation  in  which  the  busy  teacher  is  about  as  helpless 
as  he  would  be  in  Amazonian  wilds.  We  may  here  have  to 
wait  on  the  political  scientist. 

EXTRA-SCHOOL  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

Another  profitable  field  for  civic-education  research  that 
ought  to  prove  congenial  to  many  teachers  is  the  appraisal 
of  various  forms  of  extra-school  education.  All  about  us  now 
are  "good  citizens"  from  30  to  70  years  of  age,  in  the  making 
of  whom  schools  played  a  part,  small  or  large,  and  the  home, 
street,  church,  shop,  press,  and  the  political  party  the  other 
parts.  The  settlers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  from  1800  to 
1860,  averaging  a  total  of  less  than  250  days'  schooling,  were, 
judged  by  their  "fruits,"  prevailingly  good  citizens,  with 
exceptions.  What  were  sources  of  their  various  civic  virtues? 
Our  young  men  now  in  business  have  been  educated  partly 
by  the  press  of  the  last  ten  years,  as  well  as  by  their  vocational 
superiors.   With  what  results? 

Here  again  the  "case  group"  method  of  attack,  the  will  to 
analyze  concrete  qualities,  and  the  resolution  to  avoid  vague 
and  mystical  generalizations  will  carry  an  investigation 
far. 

Similar  studies  are  needed  of  certain  indirect  contributions 
from  school  life.  The  discipline  of  the  school,  next  to  that  of 
the  home,  is  the  most  persistent  "small  group"  control  to 
which  growing  youth  is  now  subject.  The  school  has  some  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  state,  of  which  it  is  a  factor.  School 
control  nearly  always  looks  to  the  future,  and  rests  heavily 


252  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

on  law,  justice,  and  rational  understanding  of  social  principles 
of  collective  behavior. 

School  discipline  may  be  considered  as  of  several  degrees, 
or  even  forms,  as  respects  autocracy,  rationality,  self- 
determination,  democracy,  etc.  Can  analysis  of  adult  case 
groups  trace  connections  of  civic  virtues  prevailing  in  adult 
life  with  habituations,  insights,  ideals  established  in  school- 
life  controls? 

It  is  frequently  asserted  that  close  connections  exist 
between  adult  civic  virtues  and  the  virtues  promoted  through 
the  voluntary  cooperations  and  competitions  of  sports, 
games,  inter-school  athletics,  etc.  Enthusiasms  here  usually 
claim  too  much.  Was  Waterloo  won  on  the  field  of  Eton  or 
did  Eton  attract  those  who  must  win  at  Waterloo? 

What  virtues  of  adult  citizens  are  in  a  measure  traceable 
to  fraternities?  Do  these  self-active  social  groups  select  the 
most  socialized?  Do  they  socialize  the  highly  individualistic? 
What  kinds  of  citizenship  in  later  adult  life  would  their 
members  represent  if  fraternity  experience  had  been  denied? 

American  history.  More  difficult  is  research  to  discover 
the  actual  contributions  to  civic  efficiency  of  American 
history  as  it  has  been  taught.  The  proponents  of  this  subject 
as  a  means  of  civic  education  (its  contributions  to  general 
culture  belong  in  a  different  category)  have  not  yet  defined 
concrete  objectives  against  which  accomplishments  could  be 
tested  —  or  have  they?  Some  enthusiastic  teachers  mani- 
festly use  the  subject  (departing  widely  from  the  guidance 
of  texts  which  most  teachers  must  follow)  as  a  means  of 
kindling  patriotic  ideals.  Case-group  studies  of  adults  might 
give  results  here.  Perhaps  civic  appreciations  and  insights 
of  other  kinds  come  from  such  study  —  but  the  entire 
situation  is  vague  as  yet. 

What  of  the  "literary"  materials  often  correlated  with 
history  —  historical   novels,   patriotic   poems,    biographies, 


PROBLEMS  OF  RESEARCH  253 

tales  of  adventure?  From  these  may  often  come  ideals, 
some  vision.  Under  what  conditions?  Diagnosis  of  adult 
"civic  efficiencies"  and  disentanglement  of  source  influences 
is  rendered  difficult  by  the  fact  that  many  leaders,  men  of 
vision,  influential  patriots,  stern  upholders  of  law,  reformers, 
and  the  like  represent  exceptional  gifts  of  heredity  and 
non-school  environment.  They  would  probably  have  been 
potent  of  civic  virtues  even  without  the  ideals  given  by 
contact  with  inspiring  materials  in  school,  library,  and  press. 

A  large  part  of  purposive  civics  teaching  in  the  past  has 
been  exclusively  by  the  method  of  "didactic  inculcation"  — 
the  study  of  formal  texts  composed  of  logically  organized 
descriptive  matter,  with  usual  recitations,  etc.  Can  any 
research  now  be  devised  to  discover  possible  functionings 
of  this  didactic  civics?  The  effort  would  be  well  worth 
while. 

Many  other  means  are  now  supposed  to  contribute  to 
civic  efficiency.  The  "functionings"  of  these  should  be 
critically  examined,  if  that  is  yet  practicable,  under  case- 
group  conditions.   Among  these  are: 

(a)  Civic-service  "projects"  or  activities. 

(b)  Dramatic  activities  or  projects,  including  commemora- 
tion festivals  and  pageants. 

(c)  High-school  or  college  economics. 

(d)  High-school  or  college  sociology. 

(e)  School  self-government. 

(/)    General  readings  on  topics  of  civic  interest. 

VALUES  OF  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS 

It  should  prove  readily  practicable  for  teachers  to  make 
many  specific  studies  of  possible  expansions  or  improvements 
in  means  and  methods  already  partially  developed,  having  in 
view  concrete  adaptations.  This  method  has  of  course 
always  been  followed  in  some  degree  by  makers  of  texts  and 


254  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

courses.  Recent  pedagogical  advances  ought  to  make  the 
method  more  productive,  especially  when  it  is  based  on 
previous  analysis  of  case-group  requirements.  Constructive 
studies  here  should  demand:  (a)  very  careful  definitions, 
including  delimitations  of  expected  aims  and  of  scope  of 
subject-matter;  (b)  specific  adaptations  to  proposed  case 
groups;  and  (c)  invention  of  as  many  devices  as  practicable. 
The  following  departments  of  study  or  school  activity  now 
provide  large  possibilities  for  such  inquiries: 

(a)  American  history,  retaining  chronological  order, 
encyclopedic  content,  and  didactic  presentation.  Proposed 
rewritings  might  be  planned  so  as  to  confine  emphasis,  except 
for  skeleton  outline,  to  subjects  probably  vital  to  the  civic 
behavior,  fifteen  years  hence,  of  men  and  women  citizens,  30 
to  50  years  of  age,  of  only  elementary  school  education  and 
an  income  under  $2000  —  the  form  to  be  adapted  to  seventh 
and  eighth  grade  pupils  of  average  intelligence,  taught  by 
teachers  responsible  for  all  subjects  except  manual  training 
and  household  arts. 

(b)  Social  (or  civic)  service  projects,  typified  by  "clean 
town  "  campaigns,  help  of  sick,  cooperation  in  policing,  grad- 
ing of  school  grounds,  tree  planting,  and  others  where 
valuable  service  to  neighborhood  results.  (1)  Not  many 
valuable  projects  have  yet  been  discovered.  (2)  Teachers 
have  little  information  as  to  their  difficulty,  adaptations  to 
grades,  time  required,  and  ultimate  contributions  to  civic 
behavior,  or  motives  thereto.  An  ingenious  social-science 
teacher  could  now  assemble  a  helpful  little  book  in  this  area. 
(3)  Neither  is  adequate  information  accessible  as  to  adap- 
tations of  these  projects  to  girls  or  to  boys,  to  cities  or  to 
villages,  to  prosperous  or  to  poor  environments. 

(c)  Dramatic  projects,  including  commemoration  festivals, 
and  pageants.  Many  of  these  are  now  available  for  all  grades, 
but  their  actual  contributions  respectively  to  civic  insight, 


PROBLEMS  OF  RESEARCH  <255 

appreciation,  and  ideals  are  uncertain.  Obviously  the  moving 
picture  has  great  possibilities  here.  It  seems  now  to  be 
believed  that  dramatic  projects  are  valuable  for  learners  far 
removed  from  the  normal  American  social  inheritance  — 
recent  immigrants,  "poor  whites,"  negroes,  products  of 
poor  environments.  Are  they  valuable  for  superior  high- 
school  or  college  students? 

(d)  "Observation  and  Report"  projects,  including  school- 
conducted  visits  of  inspection  to  places  of  governmental 
service,  productive  plants,  hospitals,  etc.,  are  now  used,  but 
their  actual  or  probable  functionings  are  poorly  analyzed  as 
yet.  Neither  has  systematic  examination  been  made  of  best 
means  and  methods. 

(e)  School  discipline,  with  self-government  as  a  sub- 
species, has  obviously  been  regarded  chiefly  as  a  means  of 
conserving  the  order  needed  for  school  training  and  instruc- 
tion in  the  "school"  subjects.  But  it  is  patently  a  possible 
means  to  certain  kinds  of  civic  education  also.  What  —  for 
the  conformist  virtues  of  "small  group"  life,  for  correction 
of  gang  or  other  small  group  vices?  Social  psychology  would 
help  here. 

"School  self-government"  in  any  one  of  its  forms  may  be 
a  poor  or  expensive  means  of  maintaining  working  order  — 
but  may  it  not  be  a  very  effective  and  economical  means  of 
civic  education?  Partly  on  basis  of  service  projects,  and 
partly  on  basis  of  dramatic  projects?  If  on  "project"  basis 
should  it  not  always  be  for  definite  terms  —  one  month, 
three  months  —  or  for  specific  areas  of  action  —  volunteer 
activities,  clean  and  orderly  building,  lunchroom  control,  etc.? 

(/)  Cooperative  and  competitive  sports  usually  have  their 
controlling  ends  in  satisfaction  of  play  instincts.  Can  by- 
products important  for  civic  ends  be  developed?  Will  such 
procedure  defeat  more  important  ends  of  physical  develop- 
ment? 


256  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

(g)  Didactic  civics  or  civil  government  studies  are  now 
general,  and  the  market  supplies  a  wealth  of  competing  texts. 
Are  "follow-up"  studies  of  results  now  practicable?  Is  it  a 
good  guess  that  these  studies  make  little  abiding  impression 
on  learners  of  sub-average  abilities,  and  leave  valuable 
results  only  with  the  strongly  imaginative  and  ambitious? 

Suggestive  studies  of  adult  groups  should  here  be  practi- 
cable; also  of  students  two  or  four  years  after  taking  courses, 
to  discover  ideals  or  insights  closely  related  to  civic  behavior. 

Civic  texts  vary  greatly.  They  seldom  state  their  objec- 
tives, however.  Sometimes  they  claim  much  for  their 
"problems,"  "topics,"  even  "projects."  Are  these  claims 
fulfilled  in  practice?  Teachers  with  clearly  defined  and 
documented  hypotheses  as  to  the  desirable  and  practicable 
objectives  of  civic  education  could  evaluate  these  texts 
comparatively  in  terms  of  objectives  held  by  the  teacher. 
Such  studies  would  be  valuable  only  in  proportion  to  the 
soundness  of  the  investigator's  theories  of  educational 
objectives,  obviously. 

(h)  The  questions  of  (g)  also  apply  to  didactic  economics, 
sociology,  and  social  science,  as  junior  or  senior  high-school 
subjects.  These  subjects,  as  usually  taught,  seem  of  doubtful 
validity  in  civic  education,  except  again  for  a  rare  type 
of  student.  Obviously,  as  in  civics,  the  possible  content  of 
knowledge  for  these  courses  is  endlessly  rich.  Is  poverty  of 
resulting  interest  due  chiefly  to  faulty  adaptation  of  materials 
and  languages  of  presentation  to  powers  of  learners?  or  to 
poor  methods  of  teaching,  especially  as  implied  in  "didactic 
method"?  or  to  poorly  equipped  teachers?  May  it  not  be 
that  the  entire  method  basis  is  a  wrong  one  for  this  type  of 
subject-matter  or  for  proposed  objectives? 

(i)  What  of  the  possibilities  of  expanded  and  consistently 
followed  "problems"  method  courses  for  Grades  7  to  12 
in  this  type  of  educational  field  —  that  is,  where  systematized 


PROBLEMS  OF  RESEARCH  257 

knowledge  as  well  as  a  rich  background  of  personal  experience 
is  available  on  part  of  learners? 

(j)  What  of  the  possibilities  of  fully  developed  "readings 
and  conference"  methods  in  this  field?  Successful  examples 
of  "problem"  or  "readings"  methods  are  so  few  that  parallel 
examples  are  hardly  yet  available.  But  close  analytical  study 
of  certain  objectives,  and  of  the  adaptation  of  these  methods 
to  serving  them,  seem  to  promise  rich  results. 

(k)  "Community  civics"  as  based  partly  on  a  flexible 
"reading"  text  and  partly  on  observational  access  to,  and 
partial  interpretations  of,  local  situations,  has  apparently 
proved  functional  for  Grades  4  to  7.  Is  it  a  good  method 
beyond?   Will  it  serve  "large  group"  objectives? 

(/)  The  time  is  ripe  for  careful  study  of  results  in  adult 
civic  behavior  of  scouting  and  some  other  organized  forms  of 
extra-school  civic  education. 

(m)  For  the  well-equipped  sociological  student  certain 
other  studies  of  extra-school  education  are  practicable.  (1) 
Take  twenty  men,  30  to  40  years  of  age,  who  now  rank 
manifestly  as  "good"  citizens  in  their  respective  spheres. 
Study  their  social  growth  and  experiences  since  leaving 
school,  having  in  mind  especially  their  current  reading, 
political-party  associations,  participation  in  voting  and  other 
civic  activities,  including  vocational  group  membership.  In 
what  respects  and  to  what  extent  can  their  present  "good" 
citizenship  be  ascribed  to  their  self-education  and  to  their 
education  from  group  contacts  subsequent  to  school  life? 
Do  most  political  leaders  get  their  special  equipments  of 
knowledge,  habit,  and  ideal  at  this  time? 

(2)  Take  the  names  of  twenty  boys  who  left  school  at 
14  years  of  age  twenty  years  ago.  Diagnose  their  present 
civic  behavior.  Endeavor  to  ascertain  what  varieties  and 
degrees  of  the  ideals,  appreciations,  attitudes,  and  under- 
standings affecting  that   behavior  have  derived  from  the 


258  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

reading  done  since  leaving  school,  as  a  consequence  of  the 
reading  habits  and  powers  assured  by  the  school. 

Means  and  methods.  Another  no  less  promising  field  of 
study  for  busy  teachers  consists  in  the  close  analytic  study 
of  possible  adaptations  of  the  means  and  methods  suggested 
above  (or  others)  to  carefully  diagnosed  case  groups  of 
learners.  It  is  not,  of  course,  certain  that  we  can  always 
isolate  for  purposes  of  administering  curricula,  school  groups 
as  clearly  defined  as  our  case  groups  —  and  possibly  we 
should  not  desire  to  do  so  if  we  could,  for  social  reasons 
that  need  not  be  discussed  here.  Nevertheless,  such  specific 
studies  are  now  absolutely  essential  to  bring  us  to  close 
grips  with  concrete  problems  of  educational  values.  Is  there 
any  other  way  open? 

The  following  are  illustrations  of  this  method  of  inquiry : 
(a)  A  certain  large  urban  junior  high  school  of  1200  pupils 
in  seventh  and  eighth  grades  contains  one  hundred  boys 
entering  seventh  grades  (pupils'  Case  Group  MB)  to  whom 
the  following  description  and  prognosis  apply  with  substantial 
precision : 

(1)  They  are  the  sons  of  moderately  skilled  artisan 
workers  of  American  ancestry  whose  work  is  not  very 
regular,  who  have  meager  savings,  do  not  own  their  resi- 
dences, and  are  quite  migratory.  At  present  these  fathers 
work  in  large  factories.  Mothers  do  not  work  for  wages. 
Parents  represent  an  average  of  only  about  sixth-grade 
education.  They  are  ambitious  for  the  education  of  their 
children,  but  willing  to  help  only  the  brightest  through  high 
school.  The  fathers  belong  to  unions,  are  frequently  on 
"strike,"  and  have  only  passing  interests  in  ordinary  politics 
—  some  of  them  being,  indeed,  pretty  cynical  as  to  existing 
government.  Parents  are  law-abiding,  some  good  church 
members. 

(2)  These  hundred  boys  represent  pupils  testing  at  less 


PROBLEMS  OF  RESEARCH  259 

than  average  intelligence  for  their  ages,  12  to  15.  Their 
homes  are  small  and  dingy,  and  sanitary  conditions  — 
smoke,  cleanliness,  flies,  drainage  —  of  their  part  of  city  poor. 
Parks  are  inadequate,  the  streets  being  chief  playgrounds. 
These  boys  have  all  passed  sixth  grade,  but,  being  of  sub- 
average  intelligence,  often  of  migratory  families,  and  having 
thus  far  been  schooled  in  crowded  classes  taught  by  half- 
competent  teachers,  they  have  lost  interest  in  school.  Thus 
far  they  have  had  little  direct  civic  education.  Their  school 
behavior  is  fair,  they  have  shared  in  commemorative  fes- 
tivals, and  have  a  fair  appreciation  of  the  salient  facts  and 
personages  of  American  history.  They  are  not  vicious,  though 
easily  stimulated  to  rowdyism.  They  are  healthy  in  a  crude 
way,  and  strongly  disposed  to  rough  physical  sports  for  which 
their  environment  gives  scant  opportunity.  They  are  anxious 
to  go  to  work  —  animated  in  part  perhaps  by  the  craving 
of  their  bodies  for  physical  activity,  in  part  by  the  desire  to 
do  manly  things,  but  chiefly  to  earn  the  money  for  which 
they  experience  strong  needs.  They  expect  to  enter  juvenile 
vocations  —  after  14,  when  compulsory  school  attendance 
ends  —  and  have  only  faintest  conceptions  of  possibilities 
or  desirability  of  training  for  vocations. 

(3)  Prognosis.  The  boys  here  considered  will  leave  school 
at  14  or  16  years  of  age  and  will  go  to  no  high  school  or 
vocational  school.  From  ten  to  twenty  years  later  they  will 
almost  certainly  be  wage  earners  in  the  semi-skilled  factory 
pursuits  or  in  the  skilled  trades.  From  age  24  on  they  will 
have  families  and  will  experience  a  hard  struggle  to  support 
these.  Their  civic  outlook  on  life,  unless  the  schools  can 
modify  it,  will  be  like  that  of  their  fathers  —  largely  in- 
different, but  at  times  furiously  inclined  to  believe  that  law 
and  government  favor  other  than  wage-takers  in  the  processes 
of  production.  As  a  rule  the  magnitude  and  complexity  of 
political  conditions  will  baffle  their  attempts  to  be  individu- 


260  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

ally  of  significance  in  political  action  —  hence  they  will  vote 
as  partisan  supporters  or  opponents  of  men  and  measures 
having  sources  far  from  their  own  ranks.  But,  due  to  environ- 
ment and  home  training,  they  will  not  incline  to  lawlessness. 

(4)  Assumptions.  These  boys,  leaving  school  at  14  to  16, 
will  have  finished  the  eighth  grade.  In  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  are  departmental  teachers  in  charge  of  all  phases  of 
direct  civic  education,  for  which  20  per  cent  of  school  time 
(seven  hours  daily  for  180  days  per  year  to  cover  school  and 
home  work)  is  available.  (This  20  per  cent  includes  all 
history,  but  excludes  school  government  and  physical  sports.) 
Flexibility  of  curriculum  permits  extensive  adaptations  of 
courses  (30  to  360  hours  in  length)  to  particular  groups. 
Students  are  given  choice  of  several  civic  subjects,  but  all  are 
required  to  devote  to  this  general  department  20  per  cent  of 
their  school  time. 

Having  in  view  these  conditions,  prepare  a  series  of  courses 
specifically  adapted  to  the  needs  and  possibilities  of  these 
learners,  drawing  on  any  and  all  kinds  of  civic  subjects. 
Describe  the  specific  aims,  extent,  content,  method,  and 
necessary  administrative  conditions  of  each  course  in  detail. 
Suggest  possible  experimental  studies  to  procure  light  on 
unsettled  questions. 

(b)  In  best  modern  high  schools  considerable  election 
of  subjects  is  permitted.  In  such  schools  will  be  found  in 
each  entering  class  a  substantial  number  of  girls  to  whom  the 
following  descriptions  and  prognoses  apply  with  fair  accuracy 
(Case  Group  PN) :  (1)  These  girls  are  all  above  the  average 
of  girls  of  their  age  in  intelligence  —  many  being  very  bright. 
They  come  from  well-kept  prosperous  homes  where  sump- 
tuary standards  are  high  and  tend  to  be  extravagant. 

(2)  They  have  done  well  in  elementary  schools,  but  their 
present  civic  outlook  is  almost  wholly  that  of  their  homes  and 
"class"  environment,  little  affected  by  church,  school,  or 


PROBLEMS  OF  RESEARCH  261 

general  readings.  They  are  conventional,  devoted  to  fashion, 
have  easily  awakened  but  unstable  sympathies,  and  no 
great  respect  for  teachers.   General  health  is  fair. 

(3)  Prognosis.  Most  of  them  will  go  through  high  school 
and  spend  at  least  two  years  in  a  liberal  arts  college.  All 
will  plan  to  "work"  —  in  a  profession,  or  something  "nice," 
but  only  one  third  of  them  will  finally  settle  into  teaching, 
social  work,  or  commerce.  About  one  half  will  marry. 
Nearly  all  from  30  to  60  will  have  time  and  means  to  be 
influential  in  their  communities,  especially  in  churches  or 
clubs.  Most  of  them  will,  toward  middle  life,  become 
increasingly  interested  in  civic  affairs. 

(4)  Assumptions.  The  high  school  can  recommend  courses 
in  civic  education  during  four  years  of  high  school  —  history, 
civics,  economics,  social-science  problems,  as  well  as  some 
"service"  projects  and  civic  readings  —  up  to  one  fourth 
of  the  total  time  —  about  6000  hours  for  school  and  home 
work. 

Problems  for  investigation.  What  kinds  of  courses  would 
you  make  available  for  these  potential  leaders?  What  aims 
should  control,  content  and  method  be  provided,  and  admin- 
istrative conditions  be  met? 

(c)  Similar  problems  for  analytical  study  can  easily  be 
devised  in  the  effort  to  adapt  to  the  case  groups  given  below, 
the  various  contributions  of  school  discipline,  didactic  civics, 
American  history,  service  projects,  dramatic  projects,  civic 
readings,  and  the  rest : 

(1)  Boys  and  girls,  ages  4-6,  from  poor  urban  environment. 

(2)  Boys  and  girls,  6-9,  from  good  rural  environment,  not 
permitting  school  consolidation. 

(3)  Boys  and  girls,  9-12,  poor  urban  environment,  only 
very  exceptional  ones  probably  going  through  high  school. 

(4)  Boys,  12-15,  in  junior  high  school,  from  manual- 
laboring  class  environment;  alien  ancestry;  above  average 


262  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

mentally;  will  probably  go  half  or  all  way  through  high 
school  at  much  sacrifice  to  parents;  may  begin  earning  in 
manual-laboring  class  work,  but  at  30-50  may  be  expected 
to  be  leaders  in  industry  or  politics. 

(5)  Boys  and  girls  now  in  high  school  in  prosperous  suburb. 
Of  good  ability,  but  low  civic  interests.  Are  as  much  in- 
terested in  gambling,  and  "beating"  the  prohibition  law,  as 
in  dances  and  athletics.  Have  little  interest  in  studies,  but 
keenly  afraid  of  "not  passing."  Will  inherit  money  from 
recently  grown  rich  parents,  but  family  traditions  of  civic 
morality  are  low. 

(6)  Other  case  groups  can  readily  be  defined  by  experi- 
enced teachers. 

RELATED  PROBLEMS 

Other  problems  of  research  of  a  more  general  and  intricate 
nature  are  beginning  to  appear.    For  example: 

(a)  Under  what  circumstances  —  of  age,  economic  or 
racial  condition,  intelligence,  social  habitat,  etc.  —  are  social 
groups  likely  to  be  influenced  in  their  civic  ideals,  aspirations, 
and  insight  by  particular  adaptations  of  the  fine  arts  of 
aesthetic  or  emotional  appeal  —  music,  painting,  drama, 
fiction,  the  photodrama,  etc.?  It  is  unquestionably  true  that 
the  fine  arts  have  played  an  important  part  in  social  control 
in  former  times.  It  is  possible  that  because  of  the  increasingly 
rationalistic  spirit  of  our  times  such  methods  of  appeal  are  no 
longer  efficacious.  But  conclusions  drawn  without  close  study 
of  the  effects  of  particular  arts  —  or  phases  of  each  —  on 
particular  ages,  social  conditions,  etc.,  are  obviously  without 
validity. 

(b)  What  are  the  powers  of  social  comprehension  probably 
capable  of  being  developed  in  men  and  women  of  only 
average  or  sub-average  intelligence  —  that  is,  specific  powers 
of  so  comprehending  the  involved  economic,  political  and 


PROBLEMS  OF  RESEARCH  263 

other  social  problems  of  society,  which  will  enable  each 
individually  to  reach  conclusions  sufficiently  valid  to  guide 
the  civic  action  necessary  to  insure  at  least  the  moderate 
security  of  society? 

Two  opposed  theories  may  be  considered,  (a)  Every 
person  is  capable  of  being  educated  to  such  a  degree  of  com- 
prehension, at  least  of  essential  principles,  that,  in  a  democ- 
racy, he  can  be  trusted  to  make  his  own  decisions  and  to 
act  on  them,  (b)  A  large  proportion  of  the  civic  problems  of 
today  are  no  more  comprehensible  by  persons  of  average 
intelligence  than  are  problems  of  medicine,  bridge-building, 
naval  strategy,  or  corporation  finance.  Hence  for  the  safety 
of  democracy  the  average  citizen  must  be  taught  above  all 
else,  as  respects  these  problems,  to  do  what  he  does  in 
medicine  —  wisely  select  an  expert  and  then  implicitly 
follow  his  directions. 

Much  preliminary  light  on  this  problem  can  be  had  even 
now  by  studying  the  inter-connections  of  particular  civic 
problems  —  tariff,  reserve  banks,  court  of  international 
relations,  silver  legal  tender,  forced  incorporation  of  trade 
unions,  pasturage  in  forest  reserves,  public  control  of  rail- 
roads—  with  the  intelligence  equipment  of  stated  case 
groups  —  college  men  in  business;  women  school  teachers, 
aged  20-30;  skilled  miners,  aged  40-60;  clubwomen,  etc. 


CHAPTER  THIRTEEN 

Freedom  of  Teaching  Social  Sciences 

There  is  every  reason  to  expect  that  we  shall  soon  build 
up  a  body  of  special  social-science  teachers  in  and  for  our 
secondary  schools.  Unlike  contemporary  teachers  of  history 
—  some  of  whose  work  they  may  indeed  have  to  take  over  — 
these  social-science  teachers  may  be  expected  to  become 
increasingly  conscious  of  the  civic  objectives  of  their  work. 
Society  —  or  at  least  those  members  in  it  whose  opinions 
finally  determine  these  matters  —  will  increasingly  judge  the 
results  of  the  work  of  these  teachers,  not  in  terms  of  so  much 
knowledge  acquired  or  examinations  passed,  but  rather  by 
the  civic  character  and  achievements  of  the  men  and  women 
whom  their  pupils  become. 

It  is  already  evident  that  these  social-science  teachers,  in 
proportion  as  they  modernize  and  vitalize  their  instruction, 
will  be  constantly  skirting  the  fringes,  if  not  actually  invading 
the  twilight  zones,  of  disputed  issues.  They  will  constantly 
be  tempted  to  challenge  or  to  uphold  creeds  and  opinions 
held  by  sects,  parties,  and  propagandists.  If  they  are 
allowed  no  freedom  whatever  to  enter  into  areas  of  dis- 
agreement their  hands  as  teachers  will  be  tied.  But  if  they 
are  given  complete  liberty  to  follow  the  dictates  of  their  own 
judgments,  and  especially  feelings,  they  can  easily  become 
disruptive  agencies  of  a  disastrous  kind.  By  what  principles 
should  society  be  guided  in  controlling  them,  and  by  what 
principles  should  those  of  these  teachers  be  guided  who  most 
fully  cherish  genuine  liberty  —  that  is,  the  liberties  of  others 
no  less  than  of  themselves? 

PROBLEMS  OF  FREEDOM  IN  TEACHING  THE  SOCIAL  SCIENCES 

The  issues  upon  which  men  of  the  Occidental  nations  now 
divide  are  chiefly  social.     Our  ancestors  fought  long  and 

264 


FREEDOM  OF  TEACHING  SOCIAL  SCIENCES      265 

bitterly  over  religious  differences;  but  with  us  these  are  no 
longer  seriously  divisive  or  vital.  But  our  emotions  are 
strongly  aroused  over  questions  of  the  " Tightness"  of  private 
property,  the  "value"  of  the  monogamous  family,  the  justice 
of  the  "open  shop,"  the  actual  meaning  of  freedom  of  speech, 
and  the  free  admission  of  immigrants.  Life  tenure  for  ap- 
pointed justices,  profit-taking  as  the  reward  of  enterprise, 
birth  control,  public  supervision  of  private  schools,  state 
control  of  railways,  the  "coopting"  of  wage  workers  in 
industrial  enterprise,  conservation  of  game,  prohibition  of 
the  sale  of  liquor,  the  sterilization  of  criminals,  the  legal 
protection  of  seamen,  are  but  samples  of  the  hundreds  of 
issues  upon  which  whole  camps  are  now  almost  ready  to  go 
to  war.  They  represent  problems  that  are  of  the  most  vital 
significance  to  contemporary  citizenship  and  civilization. 

Social-science  teachers.  The  coming  social-science  teach- 
ers in  our  high  schools  will  necessarily  be  well  informed 
on  most  of  these  problems.  They  will  have  studied  the 
underlying  facts  of  history,  racial  psychology,  production 
and  distribution  of  wealth,  and  methods  of  government. 
Being  human,  they  will  have  their  own  opinions;  and  these 
will  be  strong  and  often  clearly  defined  just  because  these 
teachers  are  specialists  in  their  fields.  Being  human,  and 
often  still  young  in  spirit  and  strong  in  enthusiasm,  they 
will  desire  to  teach  to  the  full  the  truth  as  they  see  it. 
What  shall  be,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  higher  social 
expediency,  their  rights  and  privileges  here?  What  restric- 
tions shall  society  —  through  its  proper  representatives  — 
impose  upon  them,  having  duly  in  mind  not  only  immediate 
peace  and  harmony,  but  that  remoter  evolution  toward  just 
and  life-giving  policies  which  society  must  finally  desire? 

The  subject  is  not  without  its  history.  Probably  at  all 
times,  priests,  prophets,  educators,  statesmen,  writers,  and 
publicists  have  been  persecuted  for  teaching  that  which 


266  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

they  strongly  believed  to  be  the  true  and  the  right.  Some 
college  teachers  of  the  natural  sciences  have,  during  the  last 
century,  chosen  to  break  upon  the  rocks  of  opposition, 
rather  than  yield  what  they  believed  to  be  their  academic 
rights  to  teach  geology  or  biology  as  they  interpreted  these 
subjects.  Teachers  of  history  in  school  and  college  have 
often  been  viewed  with  suspicion.  But  more  fresh  in  our 
minds  are  the  difficulties  of  college  teachers  of  the  social 
sciences.  As  said  before,  the  most  divisive  issues  of  the 
present  are  found  here.  Business  men  have  not  hesitated 
to  charge  that  many  of  our  college  professors  of  economics 
are,  or  were  until  recently,"  blank  "  socialists.  The  leaders  of  the 
manual  workers,  on  the  other  hand,  affect  to  believe  that  most 
of  these  men  are  paid  to  teach  as  "the  interests"  think  best. 

But  much  of  this  history  seems  inconclusive  for  the  matters 
here  considered.  Perhaps  college  teachers  of  the  social 
sciences  still  find  it  no  less  so.  It  seems  probable  that  some 
recent  apparent  invasions  of  freedom  of  teaching  have  been 
directed  rather  at  extreme  tactlessness  of  manner  or  hopeless 
misinterpretations  of  social  values.  It  is  probable  that  some 
college  teachers  have  kept  silent  on  grave  issues  from  desire 
to  avoid  trouble.  But  it  is  no  less  probable  that  many  have 
refrained  from  wearing  their  intellectual  hearts  on  their 
sleeves,  not  because  of  fear,  but  because  of  unwillingness 
heavily  to  capitalize  what  must  in  the  very  nature  of  the 
case  have  been  interpretations  and  opinions  of  only  par- 
tially assured  validity.  They  have  suspended  individual 
private  judgments  somewhat  at  least  out  of  respect  to  the 
collective  judgments  of  parties. 

Debatable  issues.  It  is  fundamentally  important  to 
recognize  that  contentious  issues  in  the  realm  of  the  socia 
sciences  arise  largely  over  interpretations  of  social  values  or 
worths.  Only  seldom  are  questions  of  fact,  as  the  term  is 
properly  used  in  the  natural  sciences,  in  history,  and  in  legal 


FREEDOM  OF  TEACHING  SOCIAL  SCIENCES      267 

cases,  involved.  One  faction  holds  that  "it  is  better"  (or 
more  democratic;  more  just;  more  in  accordance  with  nature, 
with  divine  law,  or  with  the  spirit  of  liberty)  for  the  closed 
shop  to  prevail,  for  railroads  to  be  publicly  managed,  for 
cities  to  have  home  rule,  for  immigration  to  be  free,  for  the 
burdens  of  public  education  to  be  widely  diffused,  for  the 
Japanese  to  be  restrained  from  holding  real  estate,  for 
collateral  inheritances  to  be  taxed  100  per  cent,  for  operatives 
to  share  in  the  management  of  plants,  for  observance  of  the 
Sabbath  to  be  enforced  by  law,  and  the  like.  The  opposed 
faction  holds  that  society  will  suffer  rather  than  benefit 
from  such  procedure. 

Probably  no  one  can  now,  or  perhaps  ever,  prove  con- 
clusively that  in  the  long  run  the  abolition  of  slavery,  or  the 
liquor  traffic,  or  of  monopolistic  trade  combinations  has  been 
a  "good  thing"  for  society;  or  that  freely  permitted  vivi- 
section, private  property  in  land,  manhood  suffrage,  immi- 
gration of  non-English-speaking  aliens,  or  business  censorship 
of  moving  pictures  gives  a  net  balance  of  good  to  the  world. 
Religious  divisions  have  of  course  likewise  always  hinged  on 
questions  of  relative  worth  which  might  never  be  determined 
with  scientific  finality.  Battles  are  waged  between  faiths, 
and  victory  goes  to  the  strongest,  often  without  finally 
settling  questions  of  ultimate  worth.  But  the  instincts  and 
deep-rooted  habits  of  men  are  enmeshed  with  these  faiths; 
and  the  strongly  emotional  qualities  of  the  soul  —  loves, 
hates,  jealousies,  pugnacities,  hopes,  fears,  longings  —  are 
easily  enlisted  in  support  or  opposition.  The  progress  of  the 
years,  the  oncoming  of  new  generations,  the  competition  of 
social  values,  the  cross-fertilizations  of  ideas  and  beliefs,  all 
give  rise  to  new  conceptions  of  social  worths  and  debase  the  old. 

The  old  order  changeth,  yielding  place  to  new, 

And  God  fulfills  Himself  in  many  ways, 

Lest  one  good  custom  should  corrupt  the  world. 


268  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

We  all  hope  that  the  light  of  science  will  simplify  many  of 
these  problems  and  perhaps  lift  them  above  the  smoke  of 
embattled  passions  and  vested  interests.  But  we  must  re- 
member that  we  have  no  final  criteria  as  yet  of  social  values  — 
the  things  that  make  society,  or  mankind,  or  men,  or  even 
life,  most  worth  while;  hence  we  have  as  yet  no  scientific 
standards  whereon  to  build  the  ultimate  interpretations  of 
social  science.  For  all  practical  purposes,  of  course,  we 
Americans  are  sufficiently  convinced  that  polygamy,  con- 
stitutional monarchy,  state-supported  church,  ancestor 
worship,  imprisonment  of  debtors,  state  supervision  of 
private  schools,  primogeniture,  segregation  of  vice,  censorship 
of  plays,  and  early  toil  of  children  are  "bad"  things.  On 
the  more  generally  accepted  of  these  "faith  "  values  the  course 
of  the  social-science  teacher  is  clear. 

WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  " TEACHING"? 

The  social-science  teacher  cannot  avoid  responsibility  for 
the  teaching  of  social  "values,"  including  those  characterized 
by  such  words  as  right  and  wrong,  just  and  unjust,  honorable 
and  dishonorable,  moral  and  immoral,  patriotic,  humane, 
tolerant,  honest,  Christian,  temperate,  reverent,  and  the  like. 

But  what,  exactly,  do  we  mean  by  the  word  "teach"  in 
this  connection?  Surely  something  very  different  from  what 
we  mean  when  we  say  to  "teach"  handwriting,  geography, 
Latin,  algebra,  or  a  trade.  The  schools  are  often  urged  to 
teach  children  to  "be  honest,"  to  be  patriotic,  to  "hate  war," 
to  have  "right"  ideals.  How  are  these  things  to  be  done? 
Only  partly  by  teaching  cold  facts,  and  only  slightly  perhaps 
by  strictly  "training"  processes.  Obviously  the  teacher  must 
seek  to  effect  "feeling"  attitudes.  He  must  communicate  by 
various  devices  his  own  admirations,  dislikes,  warm  faiths, 
ingrained  "moral  principles."  Successful  teaching  of  social 
values  necessarily  means  that  the  teacher  shall  be  an  advo- 


FREEDOM  OF  TEACHING  SOCIAL  SCIENCES      269 

cate,  a  pleader,  perhaps  a  partisan.  He  can  be  impersonal 
in  teaching  reading,  musical  notation,  and  the  facts  of  history; 
but  can  he  be  impersonal  in  "teaching"  truthfulness,  fair 
play,  courageousness? 

Data  versus  judgments.  College  teachers  often  intend 
to  teach  the  "facts"  in  controversial  matters,  leaving 
students  to  make  their  individual  interpretations  and  social 
evaluations  of  these  facts.  Many  teachers,  doubtless,  have 
attempted  this  in  the  study  of  the  Lutheran  Reformation,  the 
American  Civil  War,  the  League  of  Nations,  franchises  for 
waterpower,  the  Biblical  "days  of  creation,"  immigration, 
the  liquor  traffic,  and  scores  of  other  situations  where 
personal  prepossessions  on  the  part  of  students  or  "social 
group"  prepossessions  on  the  part  of  sections  of  the  public 
are  soon  encountered.  Certainly  this  process  is  justifiable 
whenever  it  is  practicable;  and  it  is  clearly  practicable  and 
necessary  in  the  case  of  mature  students  possessed  of  a  truly 
scientific  temper  —  perhaps  a  very  small  minority  at  all 
times. 

But  is  it  at  all  practicable  with  students  of  secondary  school 
age?  Is  it  at  all  practicable  at  any  age  with  the  great  majority 
of  minds  that  are  baffled  by  intricate  problems,  and  which 
refuse  to  bear  "the  agonies  of  suspended  judgment"?  In 
some  of  the  private  affairs  of  life  the  immature  and  the 
mediocre  minds  are  not  called  upon  to  share  in  the  making 
of  momentous  decisions  in  areas  of  "social  values."  But  in 
democratic  politics,  democratic  religious  systems,  perhaps 
soon  in  democratized  industry,  the  reverse  is  true. 

The  world  of  practical  men  has  nearly  always  proceeded 
promptly  to  cut  the  Gordian  knots  of  social  values.  Men  of 
action  have  always  formed  parties  about  their  beliefs.  They 
have  sought  to  lure  or  even  to  compel  others  to  accept  their 
views.  They  have  developed  advocates,  used  propaganda, 
and  employed  numberless  forms  of  persecution.    Age-long 


270  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

hates,  vast  social  cleavages,  and  bitter  wars  have  been  some 
of  the  fruits,  but  not  necessarily  all.  The  positive  side  of  the 
ledger,  if  competently  studied,  might  show  steady  advances 
toward  truth,  cooperation,  freedom,  progress,  life  more 
abundant. 

To  "teach"  various  social  values  means  inevitably  to 
"advocate"  them,  to  seek  to  shape  appreciations,  ideals, 
sentiments,  attitudes  of  learners  toward  them.  The  teacher 
whose  panoply  of  these  values  is  well  secured  will  necessarily 
be  an  advocate,  a  propagandist,  a  person  believed  by  the 
supporting  part  of  his  public  to  be  of  "sound"  principles. 
He  can  and  will  preserve  the  judicial  attitude  up  to  the  point 
where  his  supporters  begin  to  question  his  sincerity,  his 
earnestness  (in  making  converts,  that  is),  his  devotion  to  the 
public  good. 

REALISTIC  CASES 

The  very  principle  of  freedom  of  teaching  is  itself  one  of 
the  contemporary  issues  about  which  men  tend  to  divide 
with  much  passion.  Its  discussion  in  the  abstract  may  not 
occasion  much  divisive  feeling;  but  numberless  concrete  cases 
show  how  readily  enthusiastic  proponents  and  resentful 
opponents  may  be  summoned  forth.  Some  of  these  cases  may 
be  used  as  inductive  approaches  to  the  formulation  of  certain 
proposed  working  principles. 

Given  a  social-science  teacher  in  a  public  high  school  —  a 
well-educated  man  or  woman  of  unexceptionable  private 
character  whose  "personal  influence"  with  students  is  very 
strong.  His  pupils  are  prone  to  feel  that  whatever  he  stands 
for  is  "right." 

Case  I.  This  teacher  in  the  course  of  his  work  exhibits 
himself  as  an  enthusiastic  believer  in  and  supporter  of  the 
doctrines  and  institutions  noted  below.  A  minority  of  the 
citizens  in  the  community,  including  some  of  the  parents 


FREEDOM  OF  TEACHING  SOCIAL  SCIENCES      271 

of  the  pupils,  are  convinced  he  is  wrong,  but  the  large  ma- 
jority is  clearly  with  him.  Wherever  occasion  arises  in  his 
classes,  or  where  he  can  create  an  occasion,  he  stands  strongly 
for: 

(a)  The  Monroe  Doctrine,  in  spite  of  the  dissent  of  certain 
South  Americans  in  his  neighborhood. 

(b)  Legal  prohibition  of  polygamy,  in  spite  of  the  strong 
sentiment  of  certain  Mohammedans  in  the  locality. 

(c)  Appointment  (rather  than  election)  and  life  tenure  of 
Supreme  Court  justices,  in  spite  of  the  quiet  but  bitter 
opposition  of  a  local  radical  party. 

(d)  Private  ownership  and  direction  of  railways,  in  spite 
of  a  growing  minority  sentiment  for  public  ownership. 

(e)  Capital  punishment  where  now  legalized,  in  spite  of  a 
strong  attitude  of  protest  from  some  very  good  Christians. 

(/)  Complete  non-participation  of  the  state  in  Church 
support,  in  spite  of  strong  feeling  in  favor  of  such  policy  of 
some  English  immigrants. 

(g)  Military  preparedness,  in  spite  of  the  emphatic  pro- 
tests of  a  minority  that  such  preparedness  simply  invites 
what  they  regard  as  the  "wickedness  of  war." 

Case  II.  This  social-science  teacher  finds  himself  with 
small  minorities  on  certain  issues  that  he  regards  as  vital. 
For  example : 

(a)  He  has  come  to  believe  that  vivisection  is  wrong 
morally,  and  unproductive  of  scientific  good. 

(6)  He  feels  keenly  that  it  is  not  right  for  the  United  States 
to  exclude  Orientals  from  free  immigration. 

(c)  He  has  come  reluctantly  to  believe  that  general 
suffrage  is  an  unmitigated  evil;  he  strongly  believes  that  it 
should  at  least  be  restricted  to  persons  educated  at  the  mini- 
mum to  the  extent  of  the  ordinary  eighth  school  grade. 

(d)  He  is  firmly  of  the  opinion  that  the  good  of  society 
requires  the  enforced  humane  segregation  (in  effect  imprison- 


272  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

ment,  but  without  suggestion  of  punishment)  of  all  adults 
of  only  "moron"  intelligence,  though  the  majority  of  his 
patrons  regard  his  proposals  with  horror. 

(e)  He  has  become  convinced  that  the  American  policies 
which  provoked,  supported,  and  dictated  final  conditions  of 
peace  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  which  resulted  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  Southwest,  were  indefensibly  selfish,  predatory, 
and  unjust.   Most  of  his  local  patrons  hold  opposite  views. 

Case  III.  Regarding  a  number  of  issues  of  contemporary 
politics  and  social  economy  he  finds  himself  in  party  groups 
that  either  are  now  moderate  majorities  or  hope  to  be  in 
majority  control  soon.  For  example: 

(a)  He  is  strongly  in  favor  of  such  legislative  enactments 
as  will  exclude  mild  alcoholic  beverages  from  the  operation 
of  the  constitutional  amendment  designed  to  prohibit 
manufacture  and  trade  in  intoxicating  beverages. 

(b)  He  is  very  much  opposed  to  our  entering  any  League  of 
Nations  that  will  obligate  us  to  share  in  the  use  of  force  in 
settling  international  relationships  abroad. 

(c)  He  is  ardently  in  favor  of  strict  national  censorship 
of  moving  pictures. 

(d)  He  desires  that  representation  of  the  Southern  states 
in  Congress  be  reduced  to  the  actual  proportions  stipulated 
by  the  Constitution. 

(e)  He  wants  heavy  import  duties  levied  as  protection  to 
all  American  industries,  whilst  admitting  that  higher  prices 
to  consumers  must  result. 

The  teacher  here  under  consideration  has  classes  in 
"social  science"  problems  in  seventh  and  ninth  grades;  in 
community  civics  in  the  eighth;  in  economics  in  the  tenth;  in 
sociology  in  the  eleventh;  and  in  American  history  ("taught 
primarily  from  the  standpoint  of  making  civic  leaders")  in 
the  twelfth.  His  enthusiasm  for  study  of  current  issues  has 
infected  his  pupils.    They  eagerly  bring  into  the  arena  of 


FREEDOM  OF  TEACHING  SOCIAL  SCIENCES      273 

class  discussion  contemporary  issues.    Proponents  on  each 
side  eagerly  solicit  his  opinions. 

But  among  parents  and  other  laymen  are  many  opponents 
of  his  views.  These  resent  his  influence  over  his  pupils.  They 
charge  him  with  being  a  propagandist.  They  say  he  has  no 
right  to  intrude  into  debated  issues,  that  as  a  government 
servant  he  may  not  "take  sides"  where  political  policies  are 
now  or  may  soon  be  involved. 

SOCIAL-SCIENCE  TEACHERS 

We  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  social-science  teachers 
will  in  the  future  exhibit  at  least  three  distinguishable  types 
which  may  be  designated  (a)  the  servile,  (6)  the  willful,  and 
(c)  the  balanced.  These  types  can  also  readily  be  distinguished 
among  preachers,  publicists,  politicians,  and  other  leaders 
whose  essential  characteristics  they  share. 

(a)  Servile  social-science  teachers,  under  normal  Ameri- 
can conditions,  will  probably  be  a  minority,  the  size  of 
which  will  depend  upon  the  means  of  selection  and  training 
employed,  their  social  standing  and  compensations,  and  the 
social  pressures  upon  them  for  conformity  and  partisanship. 
Perhaps  some  forms  of  extreme  servility  are  inherent,  whilst 
others  are  easily  produced  by  unfavorable  social  environ- 
ment acting  on  timid  natures. 

Servile  teachers  in  social  science  have  little  will,  and  less 
secure  knowledge,  of  their  own.  They  are  eager  to  teach 
whatever  is  approved  by  the  "powers  above."  They  are 
supporters  of  tradition  for  its  own  sake.  They  will  always 
carefully  avoid  being  thought  to  favor  any  type  of  "under- 
dog" or  discredited  cause.  They  delight  to  stand  with  the 
powerful,  whether  these  be  powerful  in  numbers  or  in  other 
kind  of  influence.  They  care  little  for  freedom  in  teaching 
as  a  principle,  but  will  often  be  very  unhappy  when  con- 
trolling  powers   change.     They   are  excessively   willing   to 


274  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

compromise,   not  from  conviction,   but  from  fear  or  love 
of  ease. 

(b)  Willful  teachers  of  social  science  belong  at  the  other 
extreme.  These  tend  to  value  their  own  opinions  above 
those  of  any,  or  all,  of  their  fellows.  They  are  possessed  of 
strong  impulses,  and  often  of  strong  sympathies  for  the 
weak  or  oppressed  and  for  minority  causes.  They  tend 
instinctively  to  favor  the  underdog,  sometimes  perhaps  less 
out  of  sympathy  for  the  underdog  than  from  envy,  jealousy, 
or  perhaps  innate  hostility  to  the  power  and  success  dis- 
played by  "upper dogs." 

Willful  teachers,  being  naturally  partisans  and  of  strong 
impulses,  easily  promote  the  antagonism  of  majority  or 
conservative  groups  and  of  course,  above  all,  of  those  indi- 
viduals or  groups  having  vested  interests  in  a  stable  social 
order.  Zealots  and  fanatics  readily  spring  from  the  class  of 
these  willful  ones,  as  also  at  times  a  Socrates,  Luther, 
Savonarola,  or  Garrison.  Often  they  are  too  sincere  or  in- 
capable of  deception  to  become  genuine  demagogues,  for 
whom  they  are  sometimes  mistaken.  They  believe  in  revolt, 
perhaps  sometimes  as  an  end  rather  than  a  means.  They  are 
disposed  freely  to  question  the  honesty  and  good  intentions 
of  those  opposed  to  them.  They  are  stiff-necked  and  loath  to 
make  the  compromises  essential  to  democratic  "fairness." 

(c)  "Balanced"  teachers.  Between  these  two  extremes 
is  the  type  here  denominated  "balanced."  Balanced  teachers 
have  their  own  strong  opinions,  but  they  also  have  great 
respect  for  the  opinions  of  others.  They  dislike  to  teach 
or  act  on  impulse,  but  neither  will  they  subject  themselves 
easily  to  the  opinions  or  wills  of  others.  As  teachers  they 
feel  a  heavy  responsibility  in  dissenting  from  the  established 
verdicts  of  history  or  the  conclusions  of  groups  of  substantial 
thinkers  in  any  field.  Nevertheless  they  will,  in  these  mat- 
ters, be  finally  guided  by  the  evidence  rather  than  by  partisan 


FREEDOM  OF  TEACHING  SOCIAL  SCIENCES      275 

contentions  or  their  own  prepossessions.  They  know  that 
majorities  are  sometimes  wrong,  but  never  so  wrong  as  some 
minorities.  They  know  that  tradition  is  sometimes  wrong, 
but  never  so  wrong  as  some  innovations.  They  know  that 
prosperous  men  are  sometimes  dishonest,  but  never  so  dis- 
honest as  some  of  the  unprosperous.  They  know  that  the 
intelligent  and  influential  are  sometimes  predatory  or  para- 
sitic, but  never  so  predatory  or  parasitic  as  some  of  the 
unintelligent  and  uninfluential. 

GUIDING  PRINCIPLES 

Confronted  by  the  conditions  of  modern  social-science 
teaching  in  secondary  schools,  what  will  be  society's  problems 
in  connection  with  the  two  extreme  types,  respectively? 

1.  Teachers  of  the  servile  type  will,  of  course,  "play  safe." 
They  will,  where  practicable,  dodge  controverted  issues 
altogether.  They  will  dwell  heavily  on  matters  that  have 
long  lain  outside  the  borderlands  of  the  contentious.  They 
will  speak  learnedly  in  truisms,  being  especially  fond  of 
general  and  abstract  phrasings. 

Servile  teachers  in  the  social  sciences  will  do  little  immedi- 
ate harm.  They  will  also  do  little  permanent  good,  except 
in  so  far  as  the  opinions  and  powers  to  which  they  are  subject 
prove  to  be  socially  sound  and  right.  Since  the  citizenship 
of  the  future  must  increasingly  be  dynamic  rather  than  static 
in  its  attitudes  and  understandings,  teachers  of  this  type 
will  prove  of  diminishing  usefulness.  School  systems  which 
have  heretofore  cherished  them  may  find  it  necessary  to 
resort  to  drastic  means  to  force  them  out;  though  most 
commonly  they  will  be  allowed  peacefully  to  grow  old  and 
to  retire  on  pensions. 

The  willful  type,  on  the  other  hand,  will  be  impatient  of 
the  established  order  and  will  prefer  to  dwell  upon  debatable 
matters.   They  will  find  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  keep 


276  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

out  of  their  teaching  the  spirit  of  propaganda.  Their  reform- 
ing zeal  usually  grows  by  what  it  feeds  on,  unless  checked  by 
violence.  Teachers  of  the  willful  type  in  the  social-science 
subjects  of  secondary  school  grade  will  frequently  be  regarded 
as  dangerous  because  of  the  immaturity  and  impressionable 
character  of  their  pupils.  In  times  of  excessive  social  insta- 
bility they  may  do  serious  harm.  Their  presence  imposes 
serious  burdens  and  embarrassments  on  democratic  school 
administration  because  all  attempts  to  remove  or  even  to  curb 
them  arouse  violent  outcries  and  resistance  on  the  part  of 
partisan  radical  groups  permitted  in  democracies  to  be  always 
vociferous  and  threatening.  Their  tenure  of  posts  of  public 
responsibility  will  seldom  be  secure.  Many  of  them  will 
finally  give  themselves  to  the  service  of  partisan  groups 
where  they  may  render  themselves  very  useful  to  society  as 
social  ferments,  critics,  or  discoverers. 

2.  "Guiding  principles"  for  social-science  teachers  will, 
perhaps,  be  of  little  use  for  the  two  extreme  types  discussed 
above.  Hence  these  principles  will  be  considered  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  "balanced"  or  intermediate  type.  It  is 
submitted  that,  having  regard  to  the  needs,  possibilities, 
and  conditions  of  social-science  teaching  in  public  secondary 
schools  and  particularly  where  controversial  issues  are  in- 
volved, these  will,  as  experience  ripens  and  the  best  will 
of  society  defines  itself  through  public  opinion,  find  them- 
selves increasingly  abiding  by  these  principles : 

(a)  The  social-science  teacher  in  his  capacity  as  public 
servant  has  no  rights  of  teaching  that  which  seems  good  or 
true  to  him,  quite  irrespective  of  the  collective  opinions  or 
valuations  of  the  society,  or  largely  controlling  majority 
thereof,  which  he  serves.  He  has  here  heavy  obligations  as 
agent  or  employee  of  the  public  either  to  meet  its  demands  or 
to  withdraw  from  its  service.  If  his  conscience  and  judgment 
convince  him  that  he  is  right,  then  his  correct  course  is  to 


FREEDOM  OF  TEACHING  SOCIAL  SCIENCES      277 

detach  himself  from  the  service  of  the  state  and  to  undertake 
propaganda  in  his  private  capacity. 

(b)  Twilight  zones.  Until  the  social  sciences,  including 
their  necessary  factors  of  social  or  ethical  valuations,  shall 
have  evolved  far  beyond  their  present  stage,  a  very  con- 
siderable twilight  zone  can  and  should  exist  in  every 
teacher's  mind  between  those  conclusions  and  hypotheses  as 
to  fact  and  valuation  which  are  to  him  so  assured  that  he 
can  confidently  and  properly  impart  them  in  public  school 
classes,  and  those  other  tentative  findings,  surmises,  and 
speculations  which  engross  his  thinking  but  which  he  is  not 
ready  to  make  a  part  of  his  teaching.  A  conscientious  and 
scientific  man  may  thus  be  tentatively  holding,  in  a  state 
of  suspended  judgment  appropriate  for  further  study,  private 
opinions  quite  at  variance  to  those  approved  formulations 
which  he  is  teaching.  (This  situation  obviously  may  impose 
a  severe  strain  upon  a  teacher's  honesty  and  faithfulness.) 

(c)  In  areas  of  social  thought  and  action  where  unsettled 
issues,  especially  of  social  valuation,  so  divide  men  into  camps 
that  large  numbers  of  able-minded  and  well-disposed  thinkers 
are  found  on  each  side,  the  teacher  dealing  with  these  issues 
in  his  classes  will  freely  accept  a  very  heavy  burden  of 
responsibility  if  he  desires  to  introduce  his  own  opinions.  He 
will  readily  recognize  his  heavy  obligations  to  show  dis- 
passionateness, a  judicial  attitude,  and  full  acquaintance 
with  the  contentions  of  each  party.  He  will  be  loath  to 
impute  improper  motives  to  either  side,  and  will  suppress  his 
own  partisan  impulses  and  emotional  preferences. 

3.  The  final  principles  which  should  guide  the  social- 
science  teacher  in  claiming  and  using  freedom  are  deducible 
from  certain  central  principles  in  democratic  government. 
They  are  suggested  by  the  words  "compromise,"  "tolera- 
tion," and  "fair  play."  They  are  further  suggested  by  the 
aphorisms   that    "under   democratic   conditions   each    man 


278  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

should  have  liberty  to  do  all  things  except  to  destroy  liberty 
(usually  that  of  his  fellows)"  and  that  "the  liberty  of  any 
man  ends  where  the  equal  liberty  of  his  neighbor  begins." 

It  is  clear,  of  course,  to  every  student  of  social  science  that 
a  democratic  social  order  is  impossible  if  individuals  and 
parties  are  not  willing  constantly  to  practice  compromise. 
Minority  groups  must  incessantly  yield  to  the  will  of  the 
majority,  submit  to  the  laws,  take  defeat  gracefully,  abide 
by  the  decision  of  the  umpire.  But  in  a  stable  social  order 
majorities  must  also  constantly  practice  toleration  and  other 
kinds  of  compromise.  Herein,  one  may  well  claim,  have  lain 
the  special  glories,  anciently  of  Roman,  and  in  recent  centuries 
of  Anglo-Saxon,  government  of  selves  and  others. 

But  there  are  limits  to  the  compromises  called  for  by 
democracy  at  its  best.  Compromises  as  respects  behavior, 
but  not  ideals  or  convictions,  are  chiefly  demanded.  In 
modern  political  and  other  social  groups,  while  conformity  in 
overt  act  is  constantly  required,  the  more  democratic  leaders 
tend  to  approve  and  prize  in  their  opponents  tenacity  of 
conviction  or  moral  principle.  Only  among  badly  socialized 
peoples  are  minorities  persecuted  for  their  beliefs.  Fully 
socialized  groups  tolerate  to  the  utmost  differences  of  opinion, 
whilst  sternly  suppressing  those  differences  in  behavior  that 
would  produce  the  kinds  of  social  discord  coming  under  the 
words  "immorality,"  "disorder,"  "lawlessness,"  "anarchy," 
"treason,"  or  "sacrilege." 

The  social-science  teacher  may  often  be  of  minority 
groups.  In  these  connections  he  is  entitled  to  hold  such 
opinions  as  he  sees  fit.  But  teaching  is  his  field  of  social 
behavior.  Here,  in  his  public  capacity,  he  must  conform  to 
the  will  of  the  majority  and,  so  far  as  overt  act  or  influence 
is  concerned,  uphold  the  social  order  under  such  democratic 
auspices  as  now  represent  the  democratically  expressed  will 
of  the  majority. 


CHAPTER  FOURTEEN 

Sample  Studies 

The  following  studies  were  made  by  students  in  a  Prac- 
ticum  (Ed.  491-2)  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
during  the  college  year  1919-20.  They  are  reproduced  here, 
partly  because  they  are  very  suggestive  for  any  persons  who 
may  be  seeking  to  construct  courses,  but  also  because  they 
illustrate  very  vividly  the  value  of  the  "case  group"  method 
of  approach  to  the  study  of  various  practical  problems  of 
civic  education. 

The  class  referred  to  contained  the  following  members,  not 
all  of  whom,  however,  contributed  to  the  studies  below: 
Rose  A.  Carrigan,  Chai  Hsuan  Chuang,  Maude  E.  Drake, 
A.  N.  French,  Florence  K.  Griswold,  Roy  W.  Hatch,  Grace  D. 
Hicks,  Annie  L.  McCary,  Marcus  L.  Mohler,  Clyde  B.  Moore, 
J.  V.  L.  Morris,  J.  F.  Page,  Charles  C.  Peters,  Abby  Roys, 
Charles  R.  Small,  Mordecai  Soltes,  Paul  F.  Voelker. 

T.    (C.  B.  M.)  Proposed  Courses  in  Civic  Education 
for  Case  Group  "Owning  Farmers" 

1.  Group  or  class.  Sons  (12-14  years  of  age)  of  farmers  owning 
and  operating  their  own  farms  in  the  North  Central  states.  (Con- 
ditions listed  below  are  based  on  observation,  census,  and  education 
reports.) 

2.  Diagnosis.  These  boys  come  from  the  substantial  type  of 
families  that  make  up  the  backbone  of  rural  life.  Extremes  either  in 
wealth  or  in  conditions  approaching  poverty  practically  never  exist. 
These  boys  are  above  average  in  native  qualities  —  physical, 
intellectual,  and  moral.  They  are  well  nourished,  share  in  home 
and  farm  tasks,  and  are  trained  to  give  attention  to  the  work  of  the 
farm.  Schooling  is  not  rated  as  being  of  very  high  importance  and 
social  experiences  are  largely  restricted  to  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood. Their  school  teachers  are  poorly  trained  and  the  schools  are 
largely  the  one-room  type,  poorly  equipped,  poorly  organized,  and 
inadequately  supervised.   Means  of  contact  with  outside  world  are 

279 


280  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

very  meager,  newspapers  and  magazines  being  limited  largely  to 
local  village  paper  and  farm  journals.  Few  books  are  in  the  home, 
and  library  facilities  are  practically  nil.  Amusements  and  recreation 
are  limited  to  occasional  neighborhood  dances,  parties,  and  church 
socials.  Little  attention  is  paid  to  dress  —  in  short,  the  traditional 
rural  attitude  toward  the  "city  dude"  may  reduce  the  sense  of 
neatness  and  cleanliness  to  a  low  degree.  Religious  interests  are 
simple  and  church  services  informal.  Few  opportunities  for  "same 
age  groupings"  outside  the  school,  whole  families  joining  in  various 
kinds  of  social  intercourse. 

Dominant  characteristics.  Physically  healthy,  interested  in  farm 
development,  expect  to  become  farmers;  little  interest  in  school;  do 
not  plan  to  take  high  school  or  college  course;  retiring  and  bashful 
when  associating  with  girls  of  own  age;  interested  in  politics  having 
direct  vocational  relations;  appreciations  of  dress,  care  of  body, 
and  manners,  low. 

3.  Prognosis,  general.  These  boys  will  probably  follow  farming 
as  their  vocation,  inheriting  land  or  receiving  family  assistance  in 
purchasing  farms.  (A  few  of  a  superior  type  will  obtain  good 
education  and  enter  professional  or  commercial  fields  in  cities.) 
Those  remaining  will  tend  to  remain  static,  taking  a  skeptical  atti- 
tude toward  any  new  theories  relating  to  farming.  By  thirty-five 
they  will  have  married  and  settled  down  to  farm  routine,  following 
the  traditions  of  the  neighborhood,  exercising  thrift  and  working 
hard.  They  will  give  little  time  to  politics  and  their  major  interests 
will  be  grouped  about  their  vocational  life. 

4.  Prognosis,  civic.  Given  no  education  greatly  differing  from 
that  now  customary,  most  of  these  boys  will  become  "good  conform- 
ing" citizens.  They  will  hold  "respectability"  almost  as  a  religious 
virtue  and  will  exhibit  a  "conformity"  to  accepted  rural  standards 
that  is  very  persistent. 

In  the  kinds  of  civic  abilities  that  have  to  do  with  the  economic 
aspects  of  rural  life  a  few  of  these  men  will  achieve  rather  superior 
ability.  They  will  assume  leadership  and  in  a  few  instances  will 
compete  successfully  with  political  leaders  from  other  callings.  A 
few  will  serve  in  state  legislatures  or  county  boards,  or  in  county 
offices  of  one  kind  or  another.  Their  training  or  education,  however, 
will  be  too  meager  for  achieving  unusual  tasks.  A  very  high  per  cent 
will  have  vague  feelings  of  political  and  social  needs  and  will  be 
inclined  to  follow  those  farmers  who  possess  the  initiative  and 
leadership  to  attempt  reform.  They  will  be  slow  to  assert  themselves, 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  281 

however,  tending  to  give  vent  to  their  feelings  through  grumbling 
rather  than  through  study  and  action.  Their  greatest  handicap  will 
be  largely  due  to  the  limited  training  and  information  possible 
through  existing  schools  and  other  educative  agencies.  Owing  to 
isolation  and  limited  social  intercourse  by-education  will  not  be  of 
a  very  serviceable  type  for  political  and  social  life. 

5.  Civic  deficiencies.  Prominent  civic  deficiencies  of  this  class  at 
ages  30-60  will  be:  (a)  Lack  of  adequate  scientific  knowledge  of 
economic,  political,  and  other  social  phenomena  to  guide  in  right 
determination  of  political  policies  for  both  associate  and  federate 
groups,  (b)  Lack  of  effective  sympathetic  appreciation  of  conditions 
and  aspirations  of  other  economic  classes,  even  though  relationships 
are  quite  direct,  (c)  Lack  of  understanding  of  effective  methods 
for  achieving  desired  political  changes  or  reforms  through  present 
civic  organizations,  (d)  Lack  of  training  in  simpler  processes  for 
group  expression  of  needs  and  desires. 

6.  Proposed  specific  objectives  of  schooling. 

a.  To  furnish  sufficient  knowledge  of  purposes,  forms,  and 
functions  of  government  and  closely  related  factors  which  will 
enlarge  certain  social  appreciations  and  aid  in  establishing  ideals. 

b.  To  furnish  training  in  analyzing  economic  and  social 
factors  that  relate  both  directly  and  indirectly  to  the  welfare 
of  rural  life. 

c.  To  furnish  instruction  as  to  available  means  for  pro- 
ducing political  or  economic  changes  and  to  furnish  so  far  as 
possible  both  vicarious  and  direct  training  therein. 

7.  Factors  conditioning  or  defining  problems  of  method. 

a.  Teachers.  The  teachers  are  as  a  rule  young  women 
(18-22),  who  have  completed  the  elementary  school  course 
and  in  many  instances  have  graduated  from  high  schools. 
Their  professional  training  is  very  meager,  only  a  small  per 
cent  attending  normal  schools.  Many  are  inexperienced. 
(Those  of  successful  experience  and  fair  training  seek  positions 
in  village  or  city  schools.)  They  come  from  the  towns  for  the 
most  part ;  relatively  few  girls  from  the  farms  go  to  high  school 
or  seek  preparation  for  teaching  in  rural  schools.  Salaries 
are  poor,  teachers  working  for  "pin  money"  prior  to  marriage; 
tenure  of  office  short  and  supervision  inadequate;  teaching 
generally  poor. 


282  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

b.  The  school.  One-room  school  typical;  buildings  poorly 
planned;  grounds  and  out-buildings  ill  kept;  equipment 
meager;  supply  of  books,  apparatus,  and  materials  for  instruc- 
tion very  limited.  Little  or  no  opportunity  for  exchange  or 
"pooling"  of  materials  between  the  schools  as  in  towns  or 
cities.  Appropriations  inadequate;  taxes  to  the  legal  limit 
much  rarer  in  country  than  in  town  or  city;  many  patrons 
look  upon  "book  learning"  and  "schooling"  as  of  minor  im- 
portance; attitude  prevails,  "This  school  was  good  enough  for 
me,  it  is  good  enough  for  my  children."  Teachers  and  school 
policies  so  changing  that  schools  are  weak  as  community 
centers.  Libraries  and  museums  too  distant  to  use.  Textbooks 
adapted  to  use  of  city  schools  rather  than  country;  are  too 
"thin,"  presupposing  much  supplementary  material  which 
rural  teacher  is  incompetent  to  obtain;  "thick"  informational 
texts  adapted  to  rural  life  are  much  needed. 

8.  Problems  of  method. 

It  is  assumed  that  approximately  10  per  cent  of  the  school  time 
for  two  years  will  be  given  over  to  "civic  education"  and  that  it 
will  have  to  do  with  both  social  and  political  relationships  of  associate 
groups  and  largely  political  relationships  of  federate  groups. 

a.  Problem:  Shall  we  assume  that  a  core  of  subject  matter 
having  a  continuity  and  unity  may  be  so  reinforced  with 
concrete  examples  and  materials  as  to  give  it  a  psychological 
approach? 

b.  Problem:  Are  boys  of  this  age  susceptible  to  "didactic" 
means  of  presentation  of  materials  if  they  are  conveniently 
arranged  and  attractively  put  in  text? 

c.  Problem:  Can  projects  of  participation  and  dramatiza- 
tion grow  out  of  such  a  course  possessing  unity  and  direction? 

d.  Problem:  Can  boys  of  this  age  be  trained  through  exer- 
cises directed  by  the  school  which  will  give  a  group  of  habits 
which  will  function  in  the  exercise  of  good  citizenship? 

e.  Problem:  Will  a  series  of  compact  epitomes,  descriptions, 
or  statements  of  important  civic  topics  stimulate  further 
study  and  thought  which  may  eventually  find  expression  in 
projects  and  investigations? 

9.  Proposed  methods. 

a.  The  organization  of  materials  in  a  text  sufficiently 
"thick"  to  permit  of  much  concrete,  typical  matter.  The  text 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  283 

would  consist  of  three  parts:  (1)  materials  organized  and 
arranged  as  a  course  of  instruction;  (2)  a  series  of  epitomes 
of  important  citizenship  topics  not  arranged  in  any  sequence, 
but  calculated  to  supplement,  and  enrich,  material  in  (1)  and 
to  suggest  problems  on  projects  beyond  the  text;  (3)  a  series 
of  topics  suggesting  training  for  the  establishment  of  certain 
habits  and  skills  closely  related  to  "civic  education." 

b.  This  first  section  (1)  would  define,  explain,  and  illustrate 
the  purposes,  functions,  and  forms  of  government  as  shown 
in  the  community,  county,  state,  and  national  and  international 
relationships.  It  would  include  such  topics  as:  maintenance 
of  a  community;  stimulation  of  cooperation;  survey  of  oppor- 
tunities for  cooperation;  responsibilities  of  the  individual  in 
maintaining  the  best  possible  health,  being  vocationally  com- 
petent, securing  best  possible  education,  maintaining  high 
plane  of  moral  or  religious  life,  and  accepting  responsibility  of 
contributing  one's  best  in  labor  and  wealth  for  society's  welfare ; 
critical  study  of  needs  of  community  and  state;  observation 
of  customs,  laws  and  regulations;  proper  attitudes  toward 
fellow  citizens;  support  of  desirable  community  organizations 
and  share  in  community  activities;  organizations  or  institu- 
tions affecting  civic  welfare,  such  as  the  family,  the  school, 
the  church,  the  press,  and  the  political  party;  means  of  com- 
munication; coordinating  facts  and  factors  such  as  "every 
individual  a  socius,"  country  life  and  city  life  complemen- 
tary, conservation,  governmental  control,  immigration,  equal 
suffrage,  and  Americanization. 

c.  The  series  of  epitomes  (2)  would  give  short  authentic  ac- 
counts in  simple  language  of  such  topics  as:  socialism;  free 
trade;  the  Monroe  Doctrine;  government  ownership  of  rail- 
roads; the  budget  system;  department  of  agriculture;  fran- 
chise; child  labor;  anarchy;  civil  service;  spoils  system; 
Bolshevism;  exploitation;  government  bonds;  Federal  Reserve 
banks;  colonial  possessions,  etc.  The  mere  reading  of  these 
would  give  information,  but  their  primary  purpose  would  be 
to  acquaint  the  pupil  sufficiently  with  a  topic  to  stimulate  him 
to  further  thinking  or  study. 

d.  The  third  series  (3)  wrould  give  a  brief  description  of  the 
habit  or  skill  to  be  attained,  wTith  its  purpose,  importance,  and 
value  clearly  defined.  These  paragraphs  would  be  couched  in 
simple,  straightforward  English  at  the  boys'  level,  much  as 


284  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

the  scouting  information  is  given.  The  information  would  be 
quickly  grasped  so  that  training  in  this  section  would  be 
stressed  rather  than  instruction.  The  following  topics  would 
be  typical:  rising  at  the  singing  of  the  national  anthem; 
saluting  the  flag;  cleanliness  in  using  public  utensils  and 
conveniences;  careful  handling  of  books,  school  furniture,  and 
public  property;  use  of  courteous  tone  of  voice;  skill  in  simple 
parliamentary  procedure;  meeting  strangers  properly;  organiz- 
ing a  movement  for  community  welfare ;  evaluating  newspaper 
material;  use  of  bureaus  and  bulletins;  critical  reading  of  crop 
reports;  committee  membership;  committee  chairmanship,  etc. 
e.  The  series  (c)  should  furnish  stimuli  for  debates  and 
reports  which  in  turn  would  furnish  opportunities  for  training 
in  habits  and  skills  as  listed  in  (d),  while  the  exercises  growing 
out  of  both  (c)  and  (d)  would  run  concomitantly  with  (b), 
supplementing,  enriching,  motivating,  and  making  provision 
for  individual  differences  and  varying  proportions  of  time  and 
changing  personnel. 

II.    (A.  L.  McC.)  Proposed  Courses  for  Girls 
of  Poor  Environment 

1.  Case  group.  Girls  in  Grades  7  and  8  —  either  of  the  8-4  or 
the  6-3-3  system — in  public  schools  of  average  American  cities  of  the 
North  Atlantic  states.  These  girls  are  12-14  years  of  age  and  will 
leave  school  at  the  end  of  Grade  8  (or  9  under  the  6-3-3  plan). 

2.  Diagnosis.  These  girls  are  from  rather  poor  homes.  Their 
parents  are  without  more  than  an  elementary  schooling  and  some 
even  have  had  no  more  than  a  fifth-grade  education.  Their  homes 
are  not  wrell  supplied  with  books  or  magazines.  Amusement  for 
these  children  has  been  confined  almost  exclusively  to  moving- 
picture  shows.  Practically  all  of  them  go  to  Sunday  school,  either 
Protestant  or  Catholic. 

The  interest-curve  in  school  is  declining.  Adolescence  is  develop- 
ing. Interests  of  childhood  are  being  cast  into  the  discard.  They 
are  becoming  interested  in  boys,  many  of  them  having  "fellows." 
There  is  a  greater  play  of  individuality  and  a  tendency  away  from 
implicit  obedience  and  from  rules  arbitrarily  imposed.  The  world 
of  adults  is  becoming  interesting  to  them.  They  are  very  critical 
and  observant. 

The  schools  are  usually  well  organized.    The  supervision  is  fair. 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  285 

The  teachers  are  not  the  youngest  and  latest  additions  to  the  corps 
—  they  have  usually  worked  up  from  the  lower  grades. 

3.  Prognosis,  general.  These  girls  will  go  into  manual  vocations, 
the  industries,  trades,  and  the  minor  positions  in  the  business  and 
commercial  world.  That  is,  they  will  be  bundle  wrappers,  cash 
girls,  stock  girls,  errand  girls,  and  with  proper  working  papers  they 
may  secure  apprentice  positions  in  factories  as  operators,  etc.  By 
the  time  they  are  16-18  they  will  be  found  in  the  better-grade  jobs 
of  the  group  into  which  they  have  fallen  —  saleswomen,  cashiers, 
operators.  Some  of  them  who  have  superior  ability  may  have 
clerical  positions.  Domestic  service  will  be  scrupulously  avoided. 
By  25-30  the  vast  majority  will  be  married.  Marriage  will  take 
them  out  of  the  wage-earning  group,  in  the  main.  Consequently 
their  major  interests  will  center  around  their  domestic  life.  They 
may  be  interested  in  politics,  but  not  in  a  constructive  way. 

4.  Prognosis,  civic.  Most  of  them  will  be  fairly  "good"  conform- 
ing citizens.  They  will  attempt  to  adhere  to  their  standards  of 
honesty  and  decency.  They  will  be  settled  into  a  more  or  less  drab 
existence.  Their  single-track  minds,  due  to  an  exceedingly  limited 
horizon,  will  be  fruitful  soil,  however,  for  clever  agitation  based 
upon  their  economic  and  social  needs.  Practically  none  of  those  who 
marry  will  be  leaders.  Among  those  who  remain  single  only  those 
who  are  of  strong  personality  will  be  leaders,  and  that  leadership 
will  be  confined  to  their  own  social  or  industrial  group,  i.e.,  trade- 
union  leaders,  etc. 

On  the  side  of  civic  initiative,  they  will  follow  rather  than  lead. 
Many  will  vote  as  their  husbands  wish  —  the  women  themselves  not 
wishing  to  differ  from  their  husbands,  or  not  sufficiently  interested 
to  care  about  the  issues  at  stake.  Where  public  service  is  responsive 
to  employment  by  voters,  these  will  merely  grumble  at  deficiencies, 
accepting  them  as  a  "necessary  evil." 

5.  Civic  deficiencies.  Prominent  civic  deficiencies  of  this  class  will 
be:  (a)  lack  of  appreciation  of  conditions  with  which  they  are  not 
in  actual  contact;  (b)  lack  of  constructive,  intelligent  interest  in 
civic  activities;  (c)  lack  of  adequate  knowledge  of  economic  and 
other  social  phenomena  to  furnish  an  intelligent  basis  for  deter- 
mining political  alignment;  (d)  lack  of  understanding  of  effective 
methods  of  employing  public  servants  —  exercise  of  the  suffrage; 
(e)  lack  of  training  in  the  simpler  processes  for  group  expression  of 
needs  and  desires;  (/)  tendency,  when  stirred  by  certain  types  of 
agitators,  to  consider  needs  and  wishes  of  their  group  paramount. 


286  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

6.  Proposed  specific  objectives. 

I.  To  enlarge  social  appreciations  and  widen  social  sym- 
pathies. 
II.  To  furnish  elementary  knowledge  of  the  forms,  functions, 
and  purposes  of  government  to  aid  in  establishing  correct 
ideals  of  the  relationship  which  the  city,  state,  nation, 
and  citizen  sustain  to  one  another. 

III.  To  "stamp  in"  the  habit  of  reading,  the  opinions  of 
experts  on  vital  issues  and  to  stamp  in  the  habit  of 
attending  public  lectures  where  those  topics  will  be 
discussed. 

IV.  To  show  the  value  of  community  cooperation. 

7.  Problems  of  method. 

Time  limitations:  one  lesson  a  week  varying  in  length  from 

40  to  50  min. 
I.  Form  in  which  to  present  material  to  girls  who  probably 
do  not  care  much  about  reading?  Will  the  use  of  supple- 
mentary and  reference  materials  simply  intensify  the 
dislike  for  reading  and  leave  a  "bad  taste,"  or  will  it 
cany  over  into  life  after  the  school  period? 
II.  Which  is  the  better  form  for  the  classroom  textbook 
material,  the  narrative  or  the  topical  outline  form? 

III.   Can  participation  projects  be  successfully  used? 

8.  Proposed  methods. 

a.  The  organization  of  materials  in  a  text  for  pupils  with 
accompanying  manual  for  teachers.  The  same  text  and  manual 
for  both  grades  —  Part  I  for  Grade  7  and  Part  II  for  Grade  8. 

b.  Presentation  of  topics  by  teacher  in  problem  form 
demanding  investigation  by  pupils. 

c.  Use  of  the  socialized  recitation.  Three-  and  four-minute 
speeches  on  various  topics  by  members  of  the  class. 

d.  Use  of  illustrative  activities  to  "stamp  in"  facts  learned 
by  class  and  home  assignments. 

e.  Correlation  with  other  subjects  as  far  as  practicable. 
/.   Development  of  many  topics  with  the  aid  of  reference 

books,  pamphlets. 

9.  Proposed  scope  of  courses  for  Grade  7. 

In  this  grade,  where  civics  is  for  the  first  time  made  a  separate 
and  distinct  study,  there  will  be  problems  of  the  local  community, 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  287 

e.g.,  the  way  in  which  the  city  is  governed,  its  people,  the  benefits 
which  its  citizens  receive  at  its  hands,  the  duty  of  the  citizens  to 
the  city.  The  last-named  topic,  the  duty  of  the  citizens  to  the 
community,  is  probably  the  most  important  one,  as  under  it  will  be 
grouped:  responsibilities  of  the  individuals  in  conserving  their 
health  and  safeguarding  the  health  of  the  community;  the  duty  of 
securing  as  good  an  education  as  possible  both  in  the  schools  and 
through  outside  agencies;  the  responsibility  for  maintaining  a  high 
moral  standard;  proper  attitude  toward  constituted  authority; 
observation  of  approved  customs  and  laws. 

Activities.  A  list  of  topics  for  short  reports  in  connection  with 
the  classroom  work  is  supplemented  by  a  list  of  activities  for  the 
entire  group.   The  following  list  is  typical: 

Write  and  illustrate  a  booklet,  "Laws  Every  Child  Should  Know." 

Organize  the  class  into  the  various  boards  of  the  city  and  drama- 
tize their  functions:  board  of  health,  street-cleaning  department, 
police  and  fire  departments,  etc. 

Form  a  class  organization  to  help  in  the  upkeep  of  the  school, 
following  the  plan  of  the  city's  government. 

Construct  a  bulletin  board  of  Citizenship  —  one  half  for  clippings 
from  the  local  newspapers  illustrating  good  citizenship,  the  other 
half  illustrating  poor  citizenship. 

Chart  with  labels  and  pictures  showing  Food  Law  Regulations. 

Grade  8  continues  the  duties  of  the  citizen  in  wider  range,  to 
the  state  and  nation.  This  involves  elementary  knowledge  of  the 
forms  and  functions  of  state  laws  and  regulations  as  well  as  some  of 
the  federal  functions  with  which  these  children  must  be  familiar. 
The  topics  for  this  section  of  the  grade  are  such  as:  relationship  of 
the  city  to  the  state;  relative  importance  to  the  nation;  responsibility 
of  the  individuals  for  maintaining  the  city  and  state's  standing; 
the  part  which  the  citizens  of  the  city  play  in  formulating  the 
policies  of  the  state  and  nation. 

In  this  grade  is  to  be  begun  the  definite  attempt  to  widen  social 
appreciations  and  sympathies.  Consequently,  the  city's  population 
is  analyzed  to  determine  the  foreign  elements  therein.  This  leads  to 
a  study  of  the  immigrant  problem  and  allied  questions,  aspirations 
of  immigrant  groups,  their  contributions  to  America,  formation 
of  sympathetic  attitude  toward  them;  also  labor  problems  as  these 
affect  the  community  —  child  labor,  women  in  industry,  factory 
legislation  in  many  of  its  aspects,  hours  of  labor,  workingmen's 
compensation,  protection  of  machinery,  sanitation,  etc. 


288  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

In  order  to  get  across  the  above  program,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
use  many  outside  references,  magazines,  periodicals,  elementary 
books  on  social  problems.  A  large  bibliography  for  both  teachers 
and  pupils  will  be  appended  to  each  group. 

Activities.  Topics  for  short  individual  investigations,  debates,  and 
discussions  supplemented  by  activities  for  the  group: 

Show  by  posters  the  occupational  openings  for  boys  and  girls 
graduating  from  eighth  grades. 

In  some  of  the  class  organizations  devote  some  time  to  the  definite 
study  of  parliamentary  law,  committee  chairmanship,  committee 
membership. 

Develop  a  "Melting  Pot"  pageant  in  which  the  children  from  the 
various  racial  groups  may  take  part,  dressed  in  their  "native" 
costume  and  with  some  activity  showing  their  contribution  to 
America. 

Make  an  Americanization  chart  showing  what  America  offers  the 
immigrant  and  what  the  immigrant  offers  America. 

Chart  showing  industrial  groups  in  the  city. 

Chart  showing  living  quarters  for  racial  groups. 

Pictures  showing  good  working  conditions  in  factories. 

III.    (A.  R.)  Proposed  Course  in  Citizenship 
for  a  Ninth  Grade 

Case  group.  Boys  14  or  15  years  of  age  of  rather  superior  mental 
ability  living  in  Western  towns  of  population  from  8,000  to  20,000. 

Diagnosis.  Pupils  in  the  majority  of  cases  are  from  American 
homes,  varying  widely  in  financial  and  social  standing  and  in  home 
influence.  Their  social  life  is  broadening  rapidly  through  entertain- 
ments of  various  sorts  and  increased  association  with  those  of 
opposite  sex.  They  show  keen  interest  in  the  world  of  adults  and 
find  satisfaction  in  sharing  some  of  its  activities.  Mental  abilities 
vary  from  that  barely  able  to  do  high  school  work  to  that  which  is 
decidedly  above  the  average.  Some  attend  school  only  because 
of  social  custom  and  not  because  of  interest  or  ability.  In  religious 
matters  they  reflect  home  influence  and  community  tendencies. 
The  latter  vary  from  a  general  interest  throughout  the  town  to  a 
decided  lack  of  it. 

They  are  all  limited  in  outlook  upon  life,  particularly  if  the 
community  is  isolated.  If  care  has  been  given  to  this  phase  of  train- 
ing in  the  earlier  grades,  considerable  modification  will  be  found. 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  289 

In  general,  they  are  inclined  to  consider  local  customs  satisfactory, 
if  personal  inconvenience  is  absent.  There  is  much  class  and  racial 
prejudice  and  a  tendency  to  ignore  the  rights  and  welfare  of  others, 
particularly  those  outside  their  personal  acquaintance. 

They  may  still  be  appealed  to  through  "activities,"  but  not  by 
direct  moralizing  unless  it  comes  from  one  of  their  own  class. 

Prognosis.  Those  of  the  better  grades  of  ability  will  usually  go 
to  college,  and  many  of  them  will  not  return  because  of  better  voca- 
tional opportunity  elsewhere  and  for  other  reasons.  Those  who  do 
return  will  enter  such  vocations  as  law,  medicine,  ranching,  business, 
or  teaching. 

Of  those  who  do  not  finish  high  school,  or  do  finish  but  do  not 
enter  college,  many  will  go  elsewhere  for  vocational  reasons  or 
because  the  family  moves  away.  A  minority  will  remain  in  the 
same  community  during  adult  life.  They  will  enter  business  or  the 
skilled  trades.  In  these  they  will  work  industriously  and  will  accept 
current  standards. 

A  few  will  become  leaders  in  the  professions,  business  and  civic 
affairs,  or  trade  organizations.  The  majority  will  accept  routine 
conditions  more  or  less  calmly.  The  reading  of  most  of  them  will 
be  limited  to  rather  a  narrow  range  of  daily  papers,  magazines,  and 
books.  Opinions  will  be  taken  from  discussions  heard  or  from  party 
or  class  decisions  and  will  be  adhered  to  doggedly.  In  this  and  other 
matters  they  will  show  high  degrees  of  cooperation  and  loyalty 
within  their  own  groups.  They  will  fear  the  influence  of  other 
classes  and  of  foreigners. 

Prognosis,  civic.  If  there  is  a  continuation  of  the  educational  and 
community  tendencies  of  the  past,  there  will  be  much  indifference 
to  civic  matters  except  during  the  heat  of  political  campaigns  or  at 
times  when  the  policies  of  public  officers  have  produced  results  they 
do  not  like.  They  will  be  superior  conforming  citizens  according  to 
present  standards,  but  will  be  too  preoccupied  with  their  personal 
affairs  to  show  much  initiative  or  reasoning  ability  in  public  matters. 

For  those  who  desire  leadership  there  will  be  fewer  obstacles  than 
would  be  found  in  other  sections  because  of  the  sparseness  of 
population.  Therefore  an  inferior  quality  of  leadership  will  be 
common. 

Civic  deficiencies,  (a)  A  tendency  to  think  in  terms  of  material 
welfare  to  the  exclusion  of  other  interests,  (b)  A  lack  of  appreciation 
and  understanding  of  other  classes  and  nations,  (c)  A  lack  of 
knowledge  of  economic  and  sociological  principles  and  facts  with 


290  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

consequent  hasty  and  ill-balanced  decisions,  (d)  A  lack  of  under- 
standing of  effective  means  of  collective  action  in  civic  matters. 

Specific  objectives,  (a)  To  show  the  social  nature  of  the  environ- 
ment and  the  place  of  the  individual  in  it.  (b)  To  develop  a  broader 
sympathy  with  other  peoples  and  classes  and  a  spirit  of  toleration 
for  the  beliefs  and  opinions  of  others,  (c)  To  give  a  knowledge  of 
the  form  and  functions  of  civic  agencies,  (d)  To  develop  a  recogni- 
tion of  civic  responsibility  and  a  response  to  it  by  appropriate  action. 

Factors  conditioning  the  problem  of  civic  instruction,  (a)  Teachers. 
The  teachers  are  well  trained  in  the  traditional  subjects,  but  do  not 
understand  how  to  handle  the  new  materials  aud  methods.  They 
often  desire  to  limit  civic  instruction  to  the  formal  aspects  of  govern- 
ment and  deny  the  civic  value  of  recent  additions  to  curricula.  They 
do  not  understand  the  importance  of  "social  activities"  of  pupils. 
The  results  from  this  condition  will  be  instruction  as  barren  as 
under  the  old  regime  or  failure  and  disgust  on  the  part  of  all  con- 
cerned. Hence  the  need  of  teacher-training  in  the  subject.  A  small 
minority  are  already  interested  and  wish  to  learn  more. 

(b)  Materials.  Many  small  places  are  lacking  in  adequate 
library  facilities  and  have  very  limited  social  and  industrial  condi- 
tions. 

Problems  of  method,  (a)  Is  it  possible  to  vitalize  the  more  abstract 
topics  which  it  is  necessary  to  teach?  What  means  will  accomplish 
this  if  it  is  possible? 

(6)  Will  a  dramatization  of  a  civic  function  give  an  adequate 
understanding  of  it? 

(c)  Of  how  much  value  is  observation  of  civic  activities  to  pupils 
of  this  age? 

(d)  When  civic  activities  are  participated  in  by  the  pupils,  what 
means  of  recognition  of  results  may  be  used  without  incurring 
bad  effects? 

Proposed  methods,  (a)  The  statement  of  lesson  themes  as  prob- 
lems to  be  solved  rather  than  in  outline  form. 

(6)  Adoption  of  the  method  proposed  in  (U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion) Bulletin  No.  23, 1915,  each  topic  consisting  of  three  divisions: 
the  approach,  investigation  of  agencies,  and  consideration  of 
personal  responsibility.  The  first  will  be  developed  from  the  expe- 
rience of  the  class  and  "will  develop  a  realization  of  the  importance 
of  the  topic  and  a  right  social  attitude  toward  it."  The  investigation 
of  agencies  will  be  accomplished  by  the  combined  efforts  of  the  class 
directed  to  personal  investigation  and  observation  and  the  con- 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  291 

sultation  of  reference  books  and  magazines.  The  last  part  must  be 
developed  by  means  suited  to  the  topic,  involving  in  many  cases 
action  of  some  sort. 

Library  facilities  for  this  particular  work  must  be  developed  in 
both  the  school  and  the  public  libraries. 

(c)  Many  activities  will  be  carried  on  independently  of  the  infor- 
mational work.  The  problem  is  to  organize  and  motivate  a  widely 
varied  program  of  participation  in  the  real  work  of  the  school. 

IV.  (M.  S.)  Proposed  Program  of  Education  for  Citizenship 
for  Children  of  Russian-Jewish  Immigrants  (Especially 
Ages  12-14) 

I.  Case  group.  Children  (ages  12-14)  of  Russian-Jewish  immi- 
grants; found  mainly  in  large  cities  in  upper  classes  of  elementary, 
as  well  as  in  the  junior  high  schools.  (All  groups  represented,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  economic  status  —  poor,  middle  class,  profes- 
sional, wealthy  —  laborers,  peddlers,  storekeepers,  manufacturers, 
etc.)  (Diagnosis  of  equipment,  conditions,  etc.,  based  to  some  extent 
on  reading,  reports,  etc.,  but  mainly  on  direct,  personal  observation 
and  first-hand  experience.) 

II.  Diagnosis  of  characteristics  and  equipment  (adults  included). 
Idealistic;  thirst  for  knowledge,  education;  respect  for  learning;  keen 
sense  of  social  justice;  the  family  as  an  institution  has  a  strong  hold; 
parental  responsibility  highly  developed ;  good  standard  of  living  — 
careful  economic  utilization;  permanent  settlers;  progressive, 
independent  attitude  in  politics;  loyalty  to  people  and  faith;  make 
adequate  provision  for  poor  and  unfortunates  of  their  race;  per- 
severant,  though  they  adapt  themselves  easily  and  readily  to  new 
conditions  and  circumstances  —  learn  language,  acquire  customs 
rapidly;  send  children  to  public  rather  than  parochial  schools; 
English  language  used  in  sermons  at  synagogues  and  at  Hebrew 
schools;  while  anxious  to  harmonize  old  mode  of  life  with  American 
conditions,  yet  they  do  not  permit  these  to  encroach  on  the  essential 
character  of  their  religious  traditions;  sober;  superior  mental  vigor; 
passionate  love  for  liberty;  possess  ancient  culture  and  heritage. 

Other  characteristics.  Occasional  over-development  of  mind  at 
expense  of  body;  keen  intellectualism  often  leads  an  element  within 
them  toward  impatience  at  slow  progress;  extremely  radical;  many 
years  of  isolation  and  segregation  give  rise  to  irritability  and 
supersensitivity;  little  interest  in  physical  sports  (looked  upon  as 
pagan  in  olden  times);  frank  and  open-minded  approach  in  intel- 


292  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

lectual  matters,  especially  debatable  questions  —  in  fact,  too 
exacting  and  outspoken  according  to  present  standards;  have  accu- 
mulated valuable  experience,  emotional  touch  and  points  of  view. 

Children  above  average  intellectually  —  attain  high  records  and 
distinction  in  work  at  schools,  genuine  interest  —  but  are  average 
or  below,  physically;  those  of  poorer  class  are  frequently  under- 
nourished; work  their  way  through  school,  supporting  themselves 
and  sometimes  even  contributing  toward  the  support  of  the  family 
—  especially  where  the  latter  is  large  —  by  selling  newspapers  or 
running  errands  after  school  hours,  and  working  during  vacations; 
anxious  for  high  educational  opportunities;  conditions  at  home 
very  unfavorable  for  purpose  of  study  —  live  in  few,  overcrowded 
rooms  in  tenements;  make  frequent  use  of  library;  second  generation 
affected  mentally, morally,  and  physically  by  American  environment. 

Poorer  live  in  congested  areas  —  moving  away,  however,  to  better 
sections  as  soon  as  financial  circumstances  permit;  fathers  occupied 
with  task  of  earning  a  living,  as  a  result  of  which  little  time  and 
attention  are  given  to  the  training  of  the  children;  parental  control 
and  oversight  weak,  because  of  conflict,  economic  strife,  and  chaos 
in  social  life,  resulting  from  the  transition  from  the  old  to  the  new 
environment,  from  the  old  to  the  new  mode  of  life. 

III.  Prognosis,  general.  Normally  the  children  will  fall  into  at 
least  three  main  groups,  according  to  economic  conditions  at  home; 
and  these  may  be  further  subdivided  in  accordance  with  the  state  of 
Jewish  culture  at  home. 

Group  A.  Those  whose  fathers  are  poor  (laborers,  pushcart 
peddlers,  etc.),  and  who  find  it  difficult  to  earn  a  livelihood  and  to 
live  up  to  Jewish  customs,  ceremonies,  and  traditions  in  the  new 
environment.  Time  and  energy  devoted  mainly  to  meeting  material 
needs  of  families.  Parental  control  and  oversight  weak,  in  the  case 
of  the  children  of  this  group,  coming  from  homes  of  low  Jewish 
cultural  state;  children  grow  to  look  down  with  contempt  upon 
things  Jewish,  the  customs  and  beliefs  of  their  parents  included,  due 
mainly  to  lack  of  opportunity  to  familiarize  themselves  properly 
with  the  history  and  traditions  of  their  people;  they  worship 
"baseball  averages"  and  all  forms  of  physical  sports  as  ends  in 
themselves.  With  some  exceptions  they  will,  as  a  rule,  "pick  up" 
any  convenient  jobs;  unsteady;  comparative  lack  of  ambition;  a 
few  will  become  apprentices  to  plumbers,  electricians,  etc.,  and 
learn  trades;  many  will  accept  routine  work  and  enter  lower  types 
of  civil  service,  etc. 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  293 

On  the  other  hand  those  coming  from  poor  families,  economically, 
but  of  high  state  of  Jewish  culture,  will  be  sympathetic  toward 
Jewish  life  and  will  contribute  toward  its  perpetuation.  They  will 
be  anxious  to  obtain  higher  education,  and  to  free  themselves  from 
the  economic  strain  of  living  from  hand  to  mouth. 

They  will  learn  trades,  become  traveling  salesmen,  enter  civil 
service,  accept  routine  work  grudgingly,  open  small  shops,  while  the 
more  ambitious  and  perseverant  will  enter  professions  (by  working 
their  way  through  college  or  professional  school,  or  by  studying  at 
night  after  working  hours).  Girls  will  become  clerical  workers, 
operators,  poorer  type  of  bookkeepers,  stenographers,  saleswomen, 
while  the  more  ambitious  will  take  advantage  of  opportunities  for 
higher  education  by  attending  preparatory  or  evening  high  schools. 

Group  B.  Those  whose  fathers  are  prosperous,  conservative 
business  men,  manufacturers,  etc.  —  upper  middle  class.  Little 
concerned  regarding  economic  strife  and  financial  condition  of 
lower  class;  known  as  the  "all  right"  groups;  their  main  occupation, 
with  noted  exceptions,  is  that  of  earning  and  spending  money.  Sons 
will,  as  a  rule,  be  admitted  into  partnership  in  fathers'  business, 
after  going  through  private  school,  high  school,  or  college;  some  enter 
professions,  especially  law  and  medicine;  and  many  become  of  the 
property-owning  class,  bankers,  brokers,  etc.  Girls  will  become 
expert  stenographers  and  bookkeepers,  go  through  high  school, 
attend  college,  or  more  usually  remain  at  home  and  marry. 

Tendencies  on  part  of  a  large  element  in  this  group  are  to  ignore 
things  Jewish;  to  consider  themselves  better  Americanized  than 
their  poorer  brethren;  to  have  distorted  notions  of  the  true  meaning 
of  Americanism;  frequently  to  interpret  it  as  requiring  the  ignoring 
or  denial  of  the  fact  that  they  are  Jews,  a  negative  conception;  to 
imitate  acts  of  the  rich  of  other  groups,  with  crude,  superficial  values 
of  American  life;  not  interested  in  furthering  cause  of  members  of 
their  race  or  in  things  Jewish  in  general. 

Group  C.  Those  whose  fathers  are  small  business  men,  tradesmen, 
foremen  in  shops,  etc.,  and  who,  in  general,  have  succeeded  in  attain- 
ing an  economic  foothold  —  lower  middle  class.  Marked  parental 
influence  and  control  —  afford  children  every  opportunity  for  higher 
education,  if  they  will  but  take  advantage  of  it  —  will  go  through 
high  school,  college,  or  professional  school. 

Children  will  join  small  business  and  help  to  build  it  up;  enter 
professions,  civil  service,  become  traveling  salesmen,  real  estate  and 
insurance  brokers  and  operators,  etc.    Liberal  in  general  but  con- 


294  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

servative  in  things  Jewish  —  anxious  to  conserve  Jewish  values,  but 
insist  on  Americanizing  form  and  spirit  of  Jewish  customs  and 
ceremonies.  Girls  become  stenographers,  saleswomen,  forewomen; 
attend  high  school,  training  school  for  teachers  or  college. 

IV.  Prognosis,  civic.  Group  A.  Keenly  aware  of  economic  strife 
and  strain  of  members  of  group,  are  politically  progressive,  anxious 
for  reform,  for  change,  frequently  taking  the  initiative  and  occupying 
leadership  in  reform  movements;  very  democratic  and  idealistic. 

Group  B.  Are  concerned  in  politics  mainly  from  the  point  of  view 
of  class  interest;  superior  conforming  citizens,  as  a  rule;  conservative 
politically  —  will  aid  in  good  government,  shun  radicalism,  etc. 
"Patronizing"  attitude  in  Americanization  and  other  work  with 
less  fortunate  economic  and  social  classes. 

Group  C.  Are  independent  and  progressive  in  politics  —  tolerant 
—  do  not  vote  as  a  class  —  interested  in  furthering  cause  of  good 
government  —  participate  in  practical  politics.  While  those  coming 
from  homes  of  a  rich  Jewish  cultural  state  are  frequently  indifferent 
toward  the  Jewish  question,  they  show  cosmopolitan  tendencies  — 
enter  settlement  work,  assume  leadership  in,  and  give  hearty  support 
to,  liberal-progressive  movements  tending  toward  the  alleviation  of 
suffering  from  poverty  and  other  unfavorable  conditions. 

All  groups  take  part  in  all  political  parties  —  do  not  vote  with 
any  single  party  as  a  group.  Those  of  Group  A,  however,  have 
strong  leaning  toward  reform  parties,  except  those  low  culturally, 
who  permit  themselves  to  be  misled  by  demagogues  and  yellow 
journals.  Group  B  naturally  lean  toward  the  conservative;  Group  C 
toward  particular  individuals  who  satisfy  them  as  desirable  office- 
holders who  have  the  public  interest  at  heart,  regardless  of  the  party 
with  which  they  may  be  affiliated  —  "vote  for  the  man." 

It  should  be  emphasized  that,  contrary  to  popular  belief,  there 
are,  with  few  individual  exceptions,  no  radicals  among  the  second 
generation.  The  radical  type  is  recruited  mainly  from  the  young 
Russian  intellectuals,  who  are  compelled  to  go  to  work  in  sweat- 
shops in  order  to  earn  a  livelihood,  and  in  whose  heart  there  naturally 
develops  a  hatred  toward  that  order  of  things  (as  they  put  it)  in 
which  a  few  have  too  much  and  many  too  little.  The  American-born 
do  not  tend  to  be  radical.  They  will  be  found  in  large  numbers  in 
the  ranks  of  the  liberal-progressives  and  conservatives. 

V.  Civic  deficiencies  (generally  true  more  or  less  of  practically  all 
these  groups  and  classes  in  American  life).  (1)  Insufficient  interest 
in  the  welfare  of  other  groups  —  mere  cold,  distant  sympathy, 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  295 

especially  for  less  fortunate  economic,  social,  and  racial  groups. 
(2)  Narrow,  provincial  attitude  in  matters  of  public  concern  — 
unreadiness  to  supplement  smaller  group  interest  to  welfare  of 
larger,  all-embracing  group.  (3)  Tendency  to  accept  unchallenged, 
and  to  base  judgment  and  thinking  on,  biased  opinions  of  certain 
individuals  (especially  demagogues  who  present  one-sided  view  of 
the  case).  Disinclination  to  formulate  judgment  on  basis  of  clear, 
scientific  knowledge,  especially  when  that  points  to  a  result  dia- 
metrically opposed  to  the  popular  one  which  the  individual  holds 
at  that  time,  and  at  which  he  will  arrive  only  after  considerable 
reading,  study,  and  thought.  (4)  Inadequate  knowledge  and  train- 
ing in  the  use  of  the  ballot  to  the  end  that  honest,  loyal  officials 
be  selected  and  proper  legislation  be  enacted. 

Civic  deficiencies.  Specifically  referable  to  immigrant  groups  in 
general  and  to  the  Russian- Jewish  groups  in  particular.  (1)  Errone- 
ous, superficial  notions  of  Americanism  which  they  have  succeeded 
in  picking  up  "on  the  street"  —  tendency  to  imitate  the  outer, 
cruder  values  in  American  life.  (2)  Chasm  created  between  immigrant 
parents  and  their  children  —  latter  despise  what  is  holy  to  their 
parents.  This  situation  sometimes  leads  to  antagonism  and  mis- 
understanding of  American  life  on  the  part  of  the  parents,  and  a 
disrespectful  "I  know  it  all"  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  children 
—  resulting  in  the  disruption  of  and  tragedies  in  family  life,  as  well 
as  in  the  weakening  of  parental  control. 

VI.   Proposed  specific  objectives  of  civic  education. 

I  believe  that  the  public  school,  the  environment,  and  other  forces 
are  already  affecting  the  second  generation  to  such  a  great  extent 
that  special  training  in  citizenship  beyond  that  given  all  boys  and 
girls  of  their  age  seems  unnecessary.  I  would  recommend,  therefore, 
that  the  specific  objectives  in  the  education  for  citizenship  of  Rus- 
sian-Jewish children,  ages  12-14,  be  those  given  below  which  are 
applicable  to  all  groups,  whatsoever  and  wherever  they  may  be, 
with  special  allowance  for  the  training  set  aside  for  the  particular 
economic  or  social  group  within  which  they  happen  to  fall  and  with 
emphasis  in  the  case  of  all  children  of  immigrants,  native  as  well 
as  foreign-born,  particularly  the  Russian- Jewish,  on  the  specific 
objectives  which  are  listed  below  under  VI,  B. 

A.  Generally  applicable  to  practically  all  groups.  (1)  To  develop 
proper  sympathetic  attitude  toward,  and  community  of  under- 
standing between,  the  groups  in  our  democracy,  to  make  the  contact 


296  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

between  them  a  source  of  strength  and  blessing  instead  of  contention 
and  scorn.  (2)  To  acquaint  them  with  the  value  of  citizenship  — 
the  civic  responsibilities  and  obligations  as  well  as  privileges;  to 
instruct  them  in  the  essentials  of  democratic  living  and  to  develop 
loyalty  toward  the  ideals  of  our  democracy;  to  acquaint  them  with 
the  underlying  principles,  nature,  and  form  of  our  government, 
the  evils  of  bossism,  corruption,  the  use  of  the  ballot,  etc.  (3)  To 
train  them  to  subordinate  the  smaller  group  interests  and  loyalties 
to  those  of  the  larger  group;  to  get  them  to  think  in  terms  of  the 
community,  to  consider  matters  mainly  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  greatest  public  good. 

B.  Specifically  applicable  to  immigrant  groups  in  general  and  the 
Russian- Jewish  in  particular.  (1)  To  aid  in  "bridging  the  gap" 
between  immigrant  parents  and  their  children  who  have  been  born 
in  the  United  States  or  brought  up  in  this  environment,  and  thereby 
help  in  bringing  about  better  mutual  understanding  and  stronger 
parental  influence  and  control,  which  is  to  act  as  a  steadying  force. 
This  might  be  accomplished  by: 

(a)  Correcting  superficial  notions  of  Americanism,  which  have 
taken  root,  and  reinforcing  knowledge  of  American  ideals,  (b) 
Widening  children's  horizon  and  enlarging  their  group  consciousness, 
giving  it  new  interpretations,  etc.  (c)  Developing  reverence,  respect, 
and  loyalty  to  traditions  of  ancestors. 

(2)  To  furnish  them  with  the  knowledge  of  the  contributions 
which  their  group  has  made  or  is  making  toward  the  material  and 
spiritual  development  of  American  life,  particularly  toward  Ameri- 
can culture  and  ideals.  (3)  To  assist  and  to  point  out  the  need  for 
their  making  their  contribution  as  a  group  toward  the  development 
of  American  culture,  by  capitalizing  and  taking  advantage  of  the 
treasures  of  racial  inheritance  and  culture  brought  to  our  shores 
in  abundance  by  their  parents,  and  other  members  of  their  group; 
to  develop  respect  for  learning  and  ancient  cultures. 

VII.  Problems  of  method.  A.  Limiting  factors  and  conditions. 
We  are  limited  in  this  work  by  the  following  factors,  none  of  which 
in  my  estimation  is  in  any  way  insurmountable,  if  we  but  decide 
earnestly  to  take  immediate  steps  toward  its  elimination.  (1) 
Teachers:  (a)  ill  prepared  for  this  new  task;  not  imbued  at  the 
present  time  with  the  right  attitude — prejudiced  and  unsympathetic 
toward  immigrant  groups,  etc.,  misled  just  as  the  rest  of  us  have 
been,  in  our  thinking;  (b)  lack  of  teacher's  manual  and  supple- 
mentary material  to  guide  and  assist  the  teacher  in  her  work. 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  297 

(2)  Lack  of  tradition  behind  snch  direct  systematically  organized 
teaching  —  it  is  an  innovation  in  school  work.  (3)  Lack  of  informa- 
tion regarding  contributions  of  the  immigrant  groups  toward 
American  life,  properly  assembled  and  organized  in  book  form  — 
not  easily  available  —  not  approached  in  the  past  from  this  point 
of  view  —  especially  books  appropriate  for  use  by  children.  (4) 
Must  depend  mainly  upon  the  results  obtained  indirectly  through 
extra-curricular  activities.  B.  Defects  of  present  system.  (1)  Teach- 
ing English  in  evening  schools  unsuccessful,  because  of  voluntary 
attendance,  and  uncertainty  of  their  continuation  on  account  of 
lack  of  funds.  (2)  Naturalization  a  farce  —  candidates  merely  re- 
quired to  answer  certain  questions  regarding  the  form  of  our  gov- 
ernment; frequently  cannot  read  or  speak  English  and  become  easy 
prey  for  demagogues  and  unscrupulous  politicians.  (3)  Need  for 
Americans'  "Americanizing"  themselves  :  (a)  Stop  putting  poli- 
tics above  country,  honesty,  etc.  (6)  Degenerating  effect  on  the 
immigrants  when  they  find  persons  high  in  office  putting  petty 
political  and  selfish  interests  above  those  of  the  land  and  humanity. 

(4)  Patronizing  attitude  in  work  with  foreign-born  —  get  natives 
and  foreigners  to  mingle  freely,  not  in  a  condescending  manner. 

(5)  Need  for  federal  government  launching  national  movement  for 
Americanization,  based  on  soundest  advice  to  be  received  by  calling 
into  considtation  experts  on  this  question  of  all  groups  and  nation- 
alities represented  in  our  population.  (Such  an  important  task 
should  not  be  left  to  voluntary  organizations,  among  whom  there 
may  be  found  some  who  utilize  the  cloak  of  Americanization  for  an 
entirely  different,  sinister  motive.) 

VIII.  Means  and  methods.  In  general,  no  distinction  should  be 
made  between  children  of  immigrant  parents  and  those  of  natives. 
They  should  be  merged  and  receive  the  same  fundamental  course  of 
training  in  citizenship  regardless  of  ancestry.  Whatever  work  is 
done  with  the  children  of  groups  should  supplement  the  work  of 
the  regular  course  in  history  and  civics.  The  problem  to  my  mind 
is  a  twofold  one,  involving  the  education  of  natives  as  well  as  of 
foreigners.  The  former  will  have  to  learn  to  give  up  the  peculiar 
notions  and  erroneous  impressions  that  they  have  regarding  immi- 
grants in  general  and  Russian-Jewish  immigrants  in  particular. 
They  will  have  to  learn  to  discern  between  the  facts  and  exaggerated 
accounts  in  newspapers  spread  broadcast,  in  which  the  foreigner  is 
often  selected  as  the  scapegoat,  target;  for  by  focusing  attention  on 
some  questionable  act  of  an  immigrant,  the  mind  of  the  public  is 


298  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

in  that  way  distracted  from  the  conditions  which  prevail  and  which 
require  clear  scientific  study  and  radical  remedy.  Often  the  errone- 
ous notions  regarding  Russian-Jewish  immigrants  are  the  result 
of  the  work  of  demagogues,  "professional  patriots,"  and  anti- 
Semites  who  play  on  the  low  prejudices  of  the  ignorant,  and  who 
give  wide  publicity  to  the  delinquent  acts  of  immigrants  or  their 
children,  emphasizing  their  extraction.  (Example:  Noisy  agitators 
among  Russian  Jews  in  very  small  minority  —  less  than  1%  of 
Russian-Jewish  population  —  through  one-sided,  exaggerated  ac- 
counts practically  all  Russian-Jewish  immigrants  are  immediately 
accused  as  and  labeled  "Bolsheviki,"  "Socialists,"  or  whatever 
unpopular  name  happens  to  be  in  vogue  at  the  time.)  Minimize 
favorable  comments. 

As  far  as  the  children  of  Russian- Jewish  immigrants  are  concerned, 
the  supplementary  course  in  citizenship  which  they  receive  would 
fall  into  two  parts: 

A.  That  given  as  part  of  the  regular  school  work. 

B.  Results  accomplished  indirectly  through  extra-curricular 
activities.  Under  A  (regular  school  work)  I  would  include  the 
following:  (1)  Different  types  of  supplementary  courses  in  history 
and  civics  to  be  offered  in  elementary  as  well  as  in  junior  high 
schools,  adapted  to  the  needs  of  particular  groups  (just  as  special 
courses  in  English  planned  to  meet  the  specific  needs  of  particular 
students  [enunciation,  pronunciation,  accent,  etc.]  ought  to  be 
arranged  after  the  group  or  class  as  a  whole  have  obtained  a  funda- 
mental knowledge  of  the  essential  elements  of  the  language).  (2) 
Provision  to  be  made  in  the  history  and  civics  courses  for  oppor- 
tunities to  learn  of  the  contributions  to  American  life  made  by 
immigrants  and  American  citizens  of  Russian-Jewish  ancestry  in 
the  past,  as  well  as  contemporary  history  of  contributions  of  old 
and  recent  immigrant  groups,  (a)  In  general,  in  each  school  part 
of  the  periods  in  history  and  civics  would  be  devoted  to  telling  in 
story  form  of  the  contributions  of  the  ancestors  of  the  predominating 
element  of  the  population  in  the  neighborhood  toward  American 
life,  (b)  Mere  didactic  presentations  will  not  prove  effective.  We 
must  try  to  tap  vital  motives,  otherwise  it  will  not  get  beneath  the 
skin.  Therefore,  the  use  of  carefully  prepared  supplementary 
reference  material  and  books,  beautifully  illustrated,  is  desirable, 
(c)  I  would  urge  the  preparation  of  special  supplementary  reading 
books  in  American  history  dealing  with  "Jewish  Heroes  in  American 
History,"  etc.,  appropriate  for  children  of  different  ages  and  grades. 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  299 

Naturally,  the  language  in  which  the  books  of  the  lower  grades  are 
written  should  be  simple  —  style  conversational,  avoiding  long 
paragraphs  —  and  profusely  illustrated.  (3)  In  addition  the 
following  means  ought  to  be  utilized:  (a)  visits  to  model  institutions 
supported  by  immigrant  groups  —  observation  reports  (Hebrew 
Immigrant  Aid  Society,  Mount  Sinai  Hospital,  United  Hebrew 
Charities,  etc.);  show  achievements  of  Jews  in  the  field  of  philan- 
thropy, toward  the  care  of  the  sick  and  poor  of  their  group,  in 
which  they  are  worthy  of  emulation,  (b)  Study,  discussion,  and 
debates  in  the  case  of  children  in  the  upper  elementary  and  junior 
high  school  classes  of  specific  groups,  their  achievements  and 
possibilities,  not  excluding  their  limitations.  (The  ordinary  reading 
matter  and  dramatic  participation  are  not  applicable,  of  course,  to 
the  children  between  the  ages  of  15  and  18.  With  them,  debate,  ex- 
position, informal  discussion  must  be  used.  The  conference  method 
must  be  utilized,  taking  care  not  to  do  any  moralizing,  but  to  carry 
the  discussion  on  a  third-party  basis.)  Raise  debatable  issues,  as 
"Should  immigration  be  restricted,  regulated,  or  admitted  freely  as 
was  the  case  before  the  war?"  "What  are  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  each  plan?"  "What  are  the  good  and  bad  effects 
of  immigration?"  ("All  bad  citizenship  due  to  lack  of  suspended 
judgment"  —  hunger  for  finality,  dogmatism  —  may  have  to  leave 
some  questions  unanswered  —  suspended  judgment.)  (c)  Com- 
parison between  the  reasons  which  impelled  the  Separatists  and 
other  denominations  in  England  and  other  countries  to  seek  refuge 
in  America  —  religious  persecution  and  intolerance,  etc.  —  and 
the  main  reasons  which  attract  the  Russian  Jews  to  America  (reli- 
gious freedom,  equality  of  opportunity,  etc.). 

(The  Americanization  of  the  newly  arrived  children  between  the 
ages  of  6  and  10  is  easily  accomplished  at  school.  Special  classes 
should  be  provided  for  those  who  arrive  between  the  ages  of  10 
and  14  to  afford  them  an  opportunity  to  acquire  the  language  more 
quickly,  with  the  least  possible  loss  of  time.) 

Extra-curricular  activities.  (1)  Dramatic  participation  will  prove 
successful  with  the  younger  children,  especially  if  organized  as 
extra-curricular  activity  around  the  stories  of  the  heroes,  etc.  (a) 
Have  plays  prepared  on  the  basis  of  the  stories  of  achievements 
in  the  past  of  members  of  group  —  clustering  round  holiday  cele- 
bration. Example:  Utilize  Washington's  Birthday  for  bringing  out 
concrete  examples  of  Jews  in  Revolutionary  War.  (Solomon,  Col. 
Isaac  Franks    (1759-1822)  Aide-de-Camp  to  George  Washington, 


300  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

Col.  David  S.  Franks,  etc.)  (b)  Dramatization,  after  reading  and 
discussion  —  write  outline  of  scenes  —  call  for  volunteers  to  take 
parts  indicated  —  let  them  go  through  the  pantomime;  make 
dialogues  short  —  no  lengthy  speeches. 

(2)  Inter-racial  pageants,  tableaux  vivants.  Utilize  these  to 
better  advantage,  at  holiday  and  school  celebrations,  the  12-14- 
year-olds  participating.  (Example :  In  the  case  of  Thanksgiving,  trace 
Jewish  origin  of  the  holiday  —  Feast  of  the  Harvest.    Tabernacles.) 

(3)  Current  events.  Arrange  for  series  of  charts  or  bulletins, 
among  which  may  be  one  for  events  which  concern  the  school 
district  or  neighborhood,  one  for  the  city  and  state,  one  for  the 
country,  and  one  or  two  for  outside  countries,  (a)  Have  each 
bulletin  labeled  properly,  (b)  Post  interesting  pictures  and  accounts 
of  important  events,  (c)  Call  upon  the  pupils  to  furnish  material. 
(d)  The  teacher  should  exhibit  a  personal  interest  in  this  matter 
herself,  (e)  Once  a  week  the  teacher  should  use  a  few  minutes  in 
showing  and  explaining  the  pictures  and  in  reading  accounts  which 
are  to  be  posted.  (/)  Have  scrapbooks  containing  clippings  telling 
of  valiant  deeds  of  members  of  the  group  —  hero  worship.  Very 
effective  with  children. 

(4)  The  work  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher  should  take  advantage 
of  every  opportunity  to  bring  out  that  America  welcomes  every 
spiritual  influence,  every  cultural  urge  and  ancient  experience,  that 
America  is  made  richer  and  more  fruitful  by  the  gifts  and  services 
of  many  nationalities;  she  should  help  the  children  to  learn  how 
much  each  race  has  brought  from  its  past  in  other  lands,  and  how 
much  each  has  contributed  and  can  contribute  here;  she  should 
awaken  a  certain  amount  of  pride  and  ambition  in  the  children  to 
live  up  to  the  traditions  and  hopes  of  their  ancestors  and  should 
endeavor  to  promote  sympathy  and  understanding  between  different 
groups  in  the  American  community.  We  might  have  some  school 
assemblies  organized  around  this  idea,  each  group  or  class  in  the 
school  contributing  its  share  toward  the  program,  in  which  the 
outstanding  virtues  of  each  group  would  be  emphasized. 

IX.  As  far  as  the  question  of  the  application  of  the  above  means 
and  methods  to  different  age  levels  is  concerned,  some  supplemen- 
tary program  based  on  the  regularly  prescribed  history  and  civics 
courses  in  each  class  might  be  worked  out;  for  example: 

(1)  For  Grades  4a  to  6b  we  might  add  several  lessons  in  story 
form  telling  of  the  manner  in  which  Jews  aided  Columbus  in  dis- 
covery of  America,  or  of  the  Jews  who  participated  in  the  American 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  301 

wars  (Revolutionary,  Mexican,  Civil,  Spanish,  down  to  our  day). 
The  majority  of  the  extra-curricular  activities  might  be  utilized 
advantageously  in  these  grades. 

(2)  For  Grades  7a  to  8a  we  might  add  several  lessons  on  the 
economic  and  social  contributions  which  Jews  have  made  to  Ameri- 
can life.  (Example:  Predominating  factor  in  building  up  garment 
and  clothing  industries;  genius  for  business,  commercial  enterprise 
and  organization,  etc.,  permanent  settlers,  not  "birds  of  passage"; 
zeal  for  learning;  leaders  in  art  and  science,  etc.)  Visits  to  model 
American- Jewish  institutions  involving  observations,  reports,  etc.. 
might  also  be  feasible  for  children  in  these  grades. 

(3)  For  Grades  8b  to  9b  the  discussion  of  debatable  issues  regard- 
ing immigration,  the  evaluation  of  the  social  and  economic  contribu- 
tions of  the  various  groups,  the  question  of  the  relationship  between 
groups,  etc.,  might  be  taken  up  to  develop  a  constructive  point  of 
view  and  a  fine  attitude  of  tolerance  toward  this  problem. 

In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  reemphasize  my  conviction  that  each 
immigrant  group  ought  to  be  encouraged  by  all  far-sighted  Ameri- 
cans, and  ought  to  be  afforded  every  opportunity  to  preserve  its 
own  culture.  American  culture  at  the  present  time  is  vague,  un- 
definable,  in  the  process  of  formulation.  Each  group  ought  to  be 
expected  to  make  a  distinct  contribution,  growing  out  of  its  own 
life,  toward  the  creation  of  distinct  American  culture.  The  children 
of  any  particular  group  should  be  encouraged  by  the  school  to  take 
advantage  of  any  supplementary  education  given  by  that  group. 
It  should  adjust  its  schedule  to  make  it  possible  for  them  to  attend 
such  courses. 

We  ought  to  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  to  educate  our 
immigrants  as  well  as  our  natives  up  to  the  ideal  American  point  of 
view.  Who  is  to  be  expected  to  lead  in  this  if  not  the  teacher?  Let  us 
study  this  problem  carefully  so  that  our  conclusions  may  not  be  based 
on   prejudice,  but   on   thorough  and   sympathetic  understanding. 

V.  (C.  C.  P.)  Proposed  Courses  of  Study  for  9th  and  10th 
Grades  for  a  Type  Group 
Case  I.  "One  hundred  girls  from  rich  families,  large  homes, 
expect  to  go  to  college,  but  only  for  social  reasons  as  now  felt; 
average  to  excellent  mentality,  nervous  physically  and  often 
overwrought  by  social  excitement;  are  extravagant,  luxurious,  and 
unconsciously  selfish;  have  never  worked  physically,  and  do  not 
seriously  expect  ever  to  do  'hard  work'  of  any  kind,  but  the  least 


302  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

selfish  talk  vaguely  about  'social  work'  and  the  'new  professions  for 
women';  their  civic  ideals  are  half  'parlor-socialistic,'  half  reaction- 
ary, strongly  feminist,  and  anti-domestic;  they  have  given  much  time 
to  music,  but  with  no  deep  interest;  are  inveterate  readers  of  light 
fiction;  ideals  of  English  speech  are  low,  and  of  manners  'up-to-date.' 
Sixty  per  cent  will  marry,  25-30;  remainder  will  remain  celibate 
with  moderate  inherited  income." 

Objectives.  Among  the  objectives  the  school  should  aim  at  in  the 
case  of  this  group  are  the  following: 

1.  To  give  these  girls  more  of  the  "hard"  attitude  toward  life 
than  their  environment  is  able  to  produce  in  them.  That  is,  the 
work  spirit. 

2.  To  develop  sympathy  with,  and  an  understanding  of,  certain 
social  classes  from  which  the  conditions  of  their  bringing  up  have 
excluded  them. 

3.  To  put  them  in  touch  with  the  activities  and  institutions 
about  them  (including  the  political),  so  that  they  may  think,  talk, 
and  act  intelligently  in  reference  to  them,  and  may  understand 
others  when  they  so  talk;  also  as  a  background  for  the  future 
systematic  study  of  economics  and  sociology.  This  is  necessary 
because  these  girls  have  been  shielded  at  home  from  much  direct 
contact  with  these  matters,  except  as  they  have  picked  up  a  little 
in  a  scattered  way  from  modern  novels. 

4.  To  give  them,  at  the  gateway  of  their  entrance  into  a  new 
realm  of  studies,  a  broad  survey  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
field  of  organized  knowledge,  partly  as  a  means  of  orientation  in  the 
specialized  studies  beyond,  and  partly  as  their  only  touch  with 
certain  fields  which  they  cannot  study  further  but  which  they 
should  not  entirely  miss.    (This  latter  is  cultural.) 

5.  To  improve  their  oral  and  written  expression. 

6.  To  supply  a  basis  for  self-guidance  in  certain  critical  phases 
of  personal  conduct,  particularly  those  having  to  do  with  sex  and 
courtship. 

7.  To  foster  such  normal  development  (of  tastes,  of  physique,  of 
recreational  abilities)  through  spontaneous  activities  as  naturally 
go  with  life  at  this  stage.    (Beta  activities.) 

GENERAL   STATEMENT    ON  MEANS   OF   REALIZING   SOME 
OF  THE  ABOVE  OBJECTIVES 

1.  The  work  spirit.  Perhaps  the  most  difficult  end  the  school  can 
undertake  to  realize  with  this  type  group  is  that  of  inculcating  in 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  303 

its  members  the  "hard,"  or  work,  spirit.  The  whole  atmosphere  of 
their  home,  and  of  their  out-of-school  environment,  is  against  it. 
The  parents  may  even  go  so  far  as  actively  to  oppose  it.  They  will 
admit  the  desirability  of  the  spirit  of  work  for  people  in  general,  but 
will  smile  at  ambitions  on  the  part  of  their  own  daughters  to  work, 
or  even  aggressively  deny  her  opportunities  to  do  so.  But  perhaps 
the  school  can  accomplish  something  toward  realizing  the  aim  of  a 
"hard"  attitude. 

(a)  It  seems  likely  that  the  effort  will  need  to  begin  on  the  side 
of  action  rather  than  instruction.  Apart  from  practice  theory  will 
become  mere  sentimentalism.  The  girls  may  be  encouraged  to 
undertake  strenuous  physical  exertion  projects,  particularly  group 
hikes.  These  should  be  long  and  trying,  and  all  complaining  should 
be  taboo.  The  teacher  should  herself  lead  in  them.  Similarly 
basketball  or  gymnasium  projects  could  be  employed,  but  always 
in  the  "hard"  spirit.  So,  too,  good  use  could  probably  be  made  of 
home  projects,  as  making  up  the  beds  for  a  certain  period,  washing 
the  dishes,  sweeping  the  floors,  sewing  for  charity,  etc.  These  should 
be  supervised  in  school,  should  be  competitive,  and  should  be 
sustained  by  pressure  from  the  class  under  the  inspiration  and 
guidance  of  the  teacher.  If  it  would  help  any,  school  credit  should 
be  given  for  them. 

(b)  Along  with  this  practice  in  "hard"  activities  should  go  a 
persistent  effort  to  develop  "hard"  ideals.  All  of  the  teachers 
should  be  on  the  lookout  for  any  natural  opportunities  to  make  such 
thrusts  as  will  add  odium  to  the  "soft"  attitude  or  attractiveness 
to  the  "hard"  one.  This  incidental  teaching  should  probably  be 
supplemented  by  systematic  instruction  in  the  social-science  classes. 
Here  a  natural  opportunity  can  readily  be  found  for  showing  the 
place  of  the  attitude  that  every  one  should  produce  at  least  as  much 
as  he  consumes.  Also  an  opportunity  can  easily  be  created,  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  what  makes  life  most  worth  while 
(perhaps  as  part  of  a  social-science  course),  for  showing  the  value 
of  work  in  organizing  personality  and  as  a  factor  in  happiness.  A 
study  of  the  Influence  of  Women  in  Modern  Life  (part  of  Social 
Science),  based  on  reading  and  discussion  of  the  lives  of  women 
"heroes"  and  of  magazine  stories  of  women  who  insisted  upon 
making  their  own  way  in  spite  of  the  wealth  of  their  parents,  should 
add  to  the  "hard"  spirit. 

2.  Acquaintance  with  working  classes  and  the  working  world.  Of 
course  this  cannot  be  largely  achieved  in  the  little  time  that  can 


304  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

be  given  to  it  in  the  school  between  the  ages  of  14  and  16.  Yet  a 
start  can  be  made  that  should  serve  as  a  basis  of  future  reading 
and  study  (particularly  college  economics  and  sociology),  and  as 
the  inception  of  a  habit  of  thinking  of  classes  outside  of  one's  own. 
To  the  above  end  there  may  be  conducted  a  study  of  vocations 
(not  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  vocational  guidance  but  rather 
for  that  of  appreciation).  It  should  include  a  consideration  of  the 
importance  of  the  vocations  studied  in  modern  society,  certain 
general  economic  features  about  the  vocation  and  its  workers, 
visits  to  establishments  where  the  vocation  is  being  plied,  and 
published  "confessions"  of  men  engaged  in  it,  the  last  giving  its 
bright  as  well  as  its  dark  side.  In  addition  to  the  visits  to  the 
factories  and  other  working  places,  more  prolonged  visits  might  be 
made  to  the  manual- training  schools,  where  the  girls  could  get 
acquainted  with  the  technical  names  of  the  tools  and  processes  used. 
Each  girl  should  be  required  to  write  up  an  account  of  her  field 
study,  using  in  it  the  proper  technical  names  of  tools  and  processes. 

3.  Study  of  the  community  —  its  activities,  its  institutions,  its 
excellences  and  defects  compared  with  other  communities.  This  can 
serve  as  a  basis  for  intelligently  reading  newspapers,  listening  to 
talks,  or  participating  in  conversations  on  community  matters.  It 
also  affords  a  necessary  basis  for  the  understanding  of  sociology  and 
economics  taken  up  later  in  the  school  career.  For  the  sake  of 
orientation  in  future  study  of  the  community  it  might  include, 
besides  the  practice  and  content  discussion,  a  discussion  of  such 
questions  as  "Why  people  should  study  their  community,"  "How 
to  go  about  studying  a  community,"  "The  courtesies  due  in  such 
studies."  (This  would  need  to  lie  in  cold  storage  for  some  ten 
years,  but  might  do  good  in  prompting  later  community  study.) 

4.  Orientation.  These  girls  will  be  required  later  to  take  spe- 
cialized courses  in  science  and  in  mathematics.  Experience  shows 
that  many,  if  not  most,  persons  go  through  compulsory  mathe- 
matics and  science  without  getting  any  real  sense  of  the  "exterior 
relationships"  of  these  subjects.  They  get  no  genuine  appreciation 
of  the  place  of  mathematics  in  life,  or  even  of  the  subject  itself. 
They  only  master,  with  such  thoroughness  as  they  must,  its  technical 
details.  And  the  same  thing  is  true  of  science.  I  am  convinced 
that  the  best  way  to  give  perspective  to  the  details  in  which  the 
pupils  will  later  be  immersed  is  to  precede  the  specialized  courses  by 
a  general  orienting  course.  In  the  case  of  mathematics  such  a  course 
would  undertake  to  show  by  illustrations  what  is  the  spirit  of 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  305 

geometrical  proof,  what  algebra  can  do,  what  trigonometry  is  about 
and  what  can  be  done  with  it,  even  what  are  the  nature  and  possi- 
bilities of  calculus.  It  would  show  what  mathematics  has  meant 
in  history,  what  achievements  today  are  dependent  upon  it,  and 
the  spirit  in  which  the  mathematician  has  worked  and  is  now 
working.  The  course  in  General  Science  would  have  a  somewhat 
similar  character.  (Neither  general  science  nor  combined  mathe- 
matics as  now  taught  has  quite  the  above  character.) 

Not  only  would  such  courses  give  perspective  in  the  later  specialized 
studies,  but  they  would  also  afford  our  girls  a  little  instruction  in  a 
field  they  would  otherwise  miss  entirely.  Under  the  present  scheme 
few  persons,  even  among  those  who  go  to  college,  get  training  in  all 
phases  of  science  and  mathematics.  They  are  usually  required  to 
take  something  in  each  field,  but  they  ordinarily  satisfy  the  require- 
ment by  working  only  in  a  few  spots  (as  by  taking  chemistry  as 
the  representative  of  the  physical  sciences).  But  it  is  important 
(for  cultural  reasons)  that  no  one  should  be  entirely  ignorant  of  any 
large  phase  of  human  interest  and  activity,  and  the  general  course, 
early  in  one's  career,  makes  it  possible  to  get  at  least  a  slight 
acquaintance  with  the  areas  that  otherwise  he  would  entirely  miss. 

5.  Expression.  It  requires  no  courage  to  urge  the  inclusion  of 
this,  as  it  has  an  established  place  in  practically  every  course  of 
study.  But  we  want  it  to  take  such  form  here  as  will  enable  us  to 
overcome  the  particular  expressional  deficiencies  of  our  group. 

6.  Eugenics.  In  the  case  of  our  type  group  certain  fortunate 
taboos  will  quite  certainly  be  built  up  at  home.  The  girls  will  be 
well  chaperoned  and  not  so  likely  to  allow  illegitimate  liberties  as 
are  girls  of  a  lower  social  class.  But  these  taboos  will  seldom  be 
rationally  grounded  and  so  will  be  in  constant  danger  of  breaking 
down.  Particularly  do  our  girls  need  to  take  a  more  rational  attitude 
toward  controlling  love,  and  toward  choosing  a  mate,  than  the 
home  alone  is  likely  to  develop.  They  need  some  instruction  in  the 
principles  of  heredity,  in  matters  related  to  sex,  and  in  respect  to 
proper  conduct  toward  the  opposite  sex.  For  the  present  the  home 
ordinarily  reserves  to  itself  the  last  two,  especially  the  last,  but 
seldom  does  anything  with  the  first.  Ultimately  these  will  probably 
be  regarded  as  residual  functions  of  the  school.  Of  course  much 
of  this  instruction  belongs  later  in  the  girl's  school  life,  but  girls  of 
sixteen  are  already  in  the  sentimental  age  and  experience  has 
9hown  many  an  unfortunate  eventuality  for  want  of  the  right  kind 
of  guidance. 


306  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

7.  Developmental  activities.  Our  type  group  will  have  many  more 
opportunities  for  developmental  activity  at  home  than  have  less 
fortunate  classes.  Yet  the  social  element  that  is  possible  in  the 
school  more  largely  than  at  home  makes  it  desirable  that  the  school 
provide  opportunity  for  elective  courses  of  the  Beta  type.  As  long, 
too,  as  the  school  undertakes  to  control  such  a  large  portion  of  the 
girl's  time  as  it  now  does,  the  Beta  activities  that  every  normal 
person  needs  should  be  included  within  that  time,  not  crowded 
outside  of  it  by  a  full  day  of  Alpha  activities,  but  there  is  no  objec- 
tion to  allowing  these  activities  to  go  on  in  the  home  (e.g.,  vocal 
music)  provided  they  are  given  school  credit  and  allowed  to  count 
on  school  time. 

Outline  of  Course  of  Study 

9th  grade 
Alpha  Subjects 

General  mathematics 3  year  hours 

General  science 3  year  hours 

Social  science 5  year  hours 

English  language  (oral  and  written  comp.) 3  year  hours 

Home  projects  and  physical  training 2  year  hours 

Beta  Subjects 

English  literature 3  year  hours 

Practical  arts,  music  appreciation,  etc 2  year  hours 

Free  play,  chaperoned  parties,  etc — 

10th  grade 
Alpha  Subjects 

Applied  biology 2  year  hours 

Social  science 5  year  hours 

English  (oral  and  written  comp.)      3  year  hours 

General  mathematics  (cont.)      2  year  hours 

Beta  Subjects 

English  literature 3  year  hours 

Art  appreciation,  music  appreciation,  practical  arts,  etc.     .    .  4  year  hours 

Free  play,  chaperoned  parties,  etc — 

Criticism  of  theater-plays,  current  events,  etc — 

Social  science  is  to  include  a  survey  of  vocations  and  labor  con- 
ditions and  problems;  study  of  the  activities  and  institutions  of  the 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  307 

community;  women  in  modern  life  (based  largely  on  "woman  hero" 
stories  and  emphasizing  "hard"  elements);  what  the  state  does  for 
us  and  what  we  owe  in  turn  to  the  state;  what  our  country  stands 
for;  the  main  elements  in  the  program  of  present-day  "radical" 
political  reformers;  the  attitude  one  should  take  toward  forward 
movements;  relations  of  citizens  to  law  enforcement;  cursory  dis- 
cussion of  what  we  can  do  to  prevent  our  government  from  being 
corrupted;  our  part  in  conserving  and  increasing  the  social  wealth 
(as  keeping  down  fires,  avoiding  waste  in  food  and  clothing,  dis- 
pensing as  largely  as  possible  with  the  personal  services  of  others; 
every  man  a  worker;  luxury);  personal  and  community  health; 
explanation  of  some  of  our  present-day  social  and  political  insti- 
tutions and  customs  in  terms  of  how  they  came  about  —  as  many 
of  the  last  as  time  will  permit.  (This  is  the  only  history  work  called 
for  here.  Biographical  history  has  preceded  and  the  systematic 
study  of  history  may  come  later.  In  connection  with  this  last 
group  of  topics  problems  of  personal  conduct  can  be  brought  in, 
centering  about  the  institutions  and  customs  to  which  they  relate.) 

Literature.  Reading  of  magazine  stories  in  class  with  criticism 
of  them;  also  a  few  novels.  Start  with  present  tastes  and  try  to 
lead  up  gradually  toward  better.  But  do  not  force  development. 
There  is  plenty  of  school  time  ahead.  Too  much  forcing  will  alienate 
the  girls  from  the  kind  of  reading  into  which  we  wish  to  initiate 
them,  instead  of  attracting  them  to  it;  besides,  our  subject  will 
cease  to  be  a  Beta  one  if  we  force  it. 

Applied  biology.  The  laws  of  heredity  studied  first  in  plant  and 
animal  applications,  then  transferred  to  man;  transmissible  physical 
and  mental  defects;  application  of  this  to  avoiding  certain  types  of 
mates;  the  control  of  love;  behavior  in  relation  to  the  opposite  sex; 
sex  hygiene.  If  long  on  time  here  and  short  in  Social  Science,  the 
entire  discussion  of  the  conservation  of  personal  and  community 
health  could  be  put  here.  (Applied  biology  is  scarcely  an  appro- 
priate name  for  such  course,  but  one  dare  not,  at  this  time,  name 
it  what  it  is,  and  "Applied  Biology"  seems  to  be  a  good  camouflage 
for  it.) 

VI.    (R.   A.   C.)   A   Plan   for   Communicating  the   Spirit    of 

America  to  the  Foreign-Born  Pupil  (Ages  12-14) 

I.    Group  conditions.     Boys   aged   twelve   to  fourteen,   born   in 

southern  Italy,  now  living  in  crowded  foreign  quarter  of  a  large 

eastern  American  city.    Having  had  a  year's  instruction  here  in  a 


308  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

public  school,  they  are  able  to  speak  the  English  language  well 
enough  to  make  known  their  wants,  and  to  understand  simple 
English  when  it  is  spoken  to  them. 

II.  Diagnosis.  These  boys  belong  to  poor  families,  the  large 
majority  of  which  have  come  from  the  country  districts  of  southern 
Italy,  not  from  the  slums  of  the  cities.  Their  parents  for  the  most 
part  have  been  small  farmers  or  hired  laborers  who  worked  upon 
the  soil,  though,  because  of  long  distances  from  centers,  they  have 
been  accustomed  through  necessity  to  perform  many  odd  jobs  such 
as  "building  a  stone  wall,  shoeing  a  horse,  mending  a  plow,  cobbling 
a  shoe,  making  a  passable  broom  out  of  a  handful  of  bushes,  trim- 
ming a  haystack  in  an  artistic  manner,"  etc.  About  one  family  in 
every  hundred  has  come  from  an  Italian  city;  there  the  male 
parents  have  been  for  the  most  part  skilled  artisans,  stone  cutters, 
sculptors,  barbers,  or  waiters.  The  farmers  have  never  had  an 
inch  of  ground  of  their  own,  but  all  have  come  through  the  offices 
of  the  inspectors  in  both  Italy  and  America  with  clean  bills  of  health. 
Though  poor,  ignorant,  and  often  extremely  narrow,  they  are 
enterprising,  plucky,  temperate,  patient  in  a  remarkable  degree, 
highly  industrious,  and  thrifty.  They  have  come  to  this  country 
to  improve  their  economic  conditions,  because  to  them  America 
has  meant  "The  Land  of  Opportunity,"  as  it  has  to  so  many  of  the 
rest  of  us. 

Dominant  characteristics  of  the  pupils.  They  are  physically 
healthy,  intensely  interested  in  increasing  their  power  to  use  the 
English  language,  usually  with  a  view  to  making,  as  soon  as  possible, 
small  earnings  outside  of  school  hours,  and  of  leaving  school  as 
soon  as  the  law  will  allow.  They  heartily  dislike  remaining  in  school 
after  school  hours,  as  that  interferes  with  work  required  of  them 
by  their  parents,  who,  up  to  this  period,  incline  to  strict  enforcement 
of  obedience,  the  father  being  absolute  head  of  the  household.  They 
stand  aloof  from  members  of  the  school  who  know  either  less  or 
more  English  than  they  do  themselves  and  are  disinclined  to 
associate  with  girls  of  their  own  age,  who  are  not  relatives,  as  such 
association  is  not  allowed  by  their  parents  —  but  are  greatly 
influenced  by  women  teachers  whom  they  like.  They  show  the 
innate  politeness  which  springs  from  kindness  of  heart;  evince 
strong  loves  and  hates  that  last;  have  affectionate  ways  of  showing 
appreciation  of  kindnesses  from  others ;  are  much  given  to  attending 
religious  services  where  they  are  most  likely  to  receive  material 
benefits  in  the  form  of  presents,  sometimes  going  to  two  or  three 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  309 

different  denominational  churches  in  succession  on  a  great  holiday. 
They  are  careless,  often  dirty  in  their  dress  and  person,  and  show 
marked  disposition  to  oppose  taking  of  baths,  especially  in  winter; 
are  unhygienic  in  behavior,  particularly  in  such  matters  as  habits 
of  expectorating,  casting  banana  peels  and  other  refuse  in  the  yards 
or  leaving  them  in  their  desks,  bringing  heavy  deposits  of  mud  into 
the  classroom  on  their  shoes,  etc.  Their  emotional  natures  are  easily 
touched;  their  love  of  art  and  music  is  deep-seated  and  real;  and 
they  show  a  medium  degree  of  brightness;  several,  however,  are 
exceptionally  dull,  while  here  and  there  is  found  budding  genius. 
Except  as  regards  the  improvement  of  their  English,  they  incline 
to  take  things  very  comfortably  and  to  expend  little  effort.  Truancy 
is  beginning  to  appear  in  some  individuals  and  there  is  a  fairly 
confirmed  habit  of  remaining  at  home  frequently  to  assist  mother 
in  times  of  sickness,  or  to  care  for  smaller  children  when  the  mother 
is  obliged  to  leave  the  house.  They  have  small  opportunity  to 
study  at  home  in  quiet  because  of  large  families  and  the  presence  of 
several  boarders;  this  crowded  condition  (many  persons  living  in  a 
few  small  rooms)  postpones  their  retiring  until  late  at  night,  which 
causes  them  to  be  tardy  frequently  at  school  and  sometimes  sleepy 
during  school  hours.  Already  they  show  signs  of  pride  in  their 
English,  and  shame  at  their  parents'  inability  to  speak  the  language, 
often,  also,  at  their  peasant's  costume.  They  respond  readity  to 
praise  and  to  suitable,  appealing  rewards  for  effort  and  achievement. 
III.  Prognosis,  general.  If  these  boys  receive  no  more  effective 
education  or  guidance  than  those  of  the  same  class  who  have  pre- 
ceded them,  a  large  proportion  of  them  will  enter  the  ranks  of 
unskilled  labor,  a  few  of  the  brightest  will  pick  up  a  trade,  many 
will  be  found  in  factories,  an  almost  negligible  portion  will  drift 
back  to  the  country  on  to  the  soil  or  into  the  quarries,  a  few  will 
enter  business,  still  another  few  will  find  an  honored  place  in  the 
professions  and  the  arts.  This  group,  as  others,  contains  leaders 
as  wrell  as  followers.  Their  friends  will  be  largely  within  their  own 
group,  and  their  friendships  will  be  close  and  intimate.  Their 
families  will  be  large,  and  they  will  support  them  without  asking 
aid.  While  not  in  any  large  number  patrons  of  public  libraries, 
they  will  frequently  be  seen  at  good  concerts,  especially  when  some 
one  of  their  own  race  is  announced  as  the  artist,  and  will  often 
spend  a  Sunday  afternoon  at  the  art  museum,  where  Sunday  after 
Sunday  they  will  be  found  in  remarkably  large  numbers.  They 
will  be  generous  patrons  of  charities  which  appeal  to  them;  while 


310  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

not  so  frugal  as  their  parents,  they  will,  on  the  whole,  be  simple  in 
their  living,  except  on  days  of  great  feasts  and  on  occasions  of 
family  rejoicing,  when  they  will  expend  large  sums  on  food  and 
floral  decorations.  These  people  will  all  belong  to  labor  unions  or 
other  fraternities.  Not  more  than  the  usual  proportion  of  a  com- 
munity where  <  earnings  are  small  will  become  lawbreakers  and 
find  their  way  to  jail. 

IV.  Prognosis,  civic.  The  civics  of  the  traditional  kind  taught 
in  our  schools  will  affect  these  pupils  not  at  all.  On  reaching  adult 
age  they  will  be  easily  led  by  a  boss  of  the  American  type,  or  worse 
still,  by  one  of  their  own  number  who  possesses  the  quality  of 
leadership  but  no  adequate  knowledge.  They  will  interpret  America 
in  terms  of  their  own  personal  experiences  with  individuals  with 
whom  they  happen  to  come  in  direct  contact,  with  individuals  who 
steal  from  them,  mete  out  injustices  to  them,  keep  their  wage  as 
low  as  possible,  ridicule  them  and  treat  them  contemptuously  — 
these  are  the  policeman  who  takes  bananas  from  their  father's 
pushcart  and  does  not  pay  for  them,  the  tactless  social  visitor  who 
seems  to  them  to  enter  their  homes  through  curiosity  and  to  inter- 
fere in  their  family  affairs,  judges  and  jurymen  who  practice  upon 
them  injustices  and  extortions,  native  Americans  who  think  them- 
selves too  good  to  associate  in  friendly  relationship  with  them. 
Their  interpretation  of  America  will  be  a  guess  from  these  concrete 
experiences;  and  their  resulting  attitude  will  be  one  of  suspicion 
toward  America  and  antagonism  to  her  institutions.  Probably 
about  15  per  cent  will  become  voters  —  most  of  these  will  give  their 
vote  merely  because  some  one  asks  them  for  it.  They  will  learn 
sufficiently  to  sense  what  they  themselves  have  missed  in  education 
to  make  an  effort  to  give  to  their  children  a  better  education  than 
they  had.  Probably  90  per  cent  will  marry  within  their  own  group 
and  through  music  and  story-telling  will  perpetuate  their  own 
hopes,  aspirations,  and  attitudes.  Only  a  negligible  number  will 
leave  the  United  States  permanently.  They  will  not  read  with 
enough  ease  to  enjoy  reading,  therefore  will  not  improve  their 
education,  or  increase  their  knowledge,  or  make  more  reliable 
their  judgments  to  any  extent  through  a  habit  of  reading  the  daily 
news  or  current  magazines.  They  will  tend  therefore  to  perpetuate 
their  prejudices  in  their  children. 

V.  Civic  deficiencies  specifically  stated.  Prominent  civic  deficien- 
cies of  this  group  at  ages  30-60  will  be:  (a)  Failure  to  realize  that 
America  is  for  their  children  as  for  other  children  of  this  land  and 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  311 

that  they  must  put  all  they  have  into  efforts  for  the  welfare  of  the 
country  and  the  welfare  of  their  children  who  are  to  be  of  the 
country  and  benefit  from  it.  (b)  Failure  to  comprehend  the  value 
of  community  service  and  cooperation  for  a  group  cause  of  civic 
nature,  (c)  Failure  to  understand  the  personal  returns  that  accrue 
from  hygienic  living,  (d)  Failure  to  recognize  the  extent  of  personal 
responsibility  in  the  use  of  the  ballot,  and  the  choice  of  a  leader. 
(e)  Lack  of  standards  by  which  to  judge  good  leaders.  (/)  Failure 
to  understand  that  American  institutions  and  American  laws  exist 
solely  for  the  good  of  the  American  people. 

VI.  Proposed  specific  objectives,  (a)  To  develop  an  appreciation 
of  the  personal  equations  in  American  institutions,  laws,  customs, 
aspirations,  ideals  —  "How  does  this  bring  good  to  me  and  to  my 
children?" 

(b)  To  develop  the  will,  the  necessary  knowledge,  and  the  requisite 
power  to  serve  the  community  in  which  they  live,  and  to  cooperate 
with  zeal  in  a  group  cause  even  when  it  is  opposed  to  a  purely  per- 
sonal interest. 

(c)  To  produce  habits  of  hygienic  living. 

(d)  To  stimulate  the  will  and  judgment  in  choosing  leaders 
possessing  qualities  of  fitness  for  their  work. 

(e)  To  arouse  a  sense  of  responsibility  of  the  individual  as  a 
member  of  the  group. 

VII.  Problems  of  method,  (a)  Reading  is  as  yet  accomplished 
with  labor;  is  it  likely  that  textbook  material  will  secure  any 
functioning  results?  (6)  Since  they  are  still  strangers  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, is  it  likely  that  direct  appeals  to  altruistic  tendencies  will 
count?    (c)  Will  the  traditional  morning  talk  accomplish  anything? 

(d)  In  the  absence  of  American  experiences  of  a  normal  type,  is 
not  the  first  need  that  of  personal  contact  with  impelling  forces  ? 

(e)  What  shall  be  the  character  of  these  experiences?  (/)  In  what 
type  of  school  will  appropriate  experiences  be  most  readily  given  and 
most  effectively  function? 

VIII.  Proposed  methods,  (a)  On  the  basis  of  the  belief  that  good 
citizenship  is  a  phase  of  living  common  to  girls  and  boys  as  well  as 
to  adults,  that  habits  and  aptitudes  of  good  civic  living  grow  with 
appropriate  experiences  within  small  groups,  and  that  they  begin  to 
grow  just  as  soon  as  the  individual  begins  to  feel  himself  a  responsible 
member  of  a  social  group,  whatever  his  age,  it  is  proposed  to  accom- 
plish group  situations  for  these  boys  in  which  they  will  work  toward 
the  civic  objectives  proposed  under  VI.    The  time  allowance  will 


312  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

be  one  hour  each  day.  It  is  felt  that  this  is  not  excessive,  since  the 
school's  greatest  responsibility  to  these  boys  lies  in  its  obligation  to 
integrate  them  into  American  life,  as  only  in  the  success  of  this 
process  can  America  profit  by  their  presence  here  and  can  they 
here  enjoy  their  birthright  of  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 

(b)   Proposed  program  in  civics. 

Projects  centering  around  school  welfare  and  community 
welfare. 

A.  Junior  Civic  League  (or  some  other  title  chosen  by  the 
boys).  Committees  self-appointed.  Possibilities  sug- 
gested below: 

An  Advisory  Council,  a  Good  Citi-  Method  and  matter  should  lead  to 
zenship  Committee,  Board  of  knowledge  of  related  governmental 
Health,  Public  Works  Department,  agencies,  to  names  of  present  offi- 
Library  Department,  Entertainment  cials,  and  methods  of  selecting  and 
Committee.  financing,  also  ways  the  individual 

can  use  the  knowledge  helpfully. 

B.  Junior  Aids  (or  some  other  title  chosen  by  the  boys). 

A  slogan  of  some  kind  —  "We  live  in  the  schoolroom 
five  hours  a  day;  why  not 
make  it  a  pleasant  place  in 
which  to  stay?'* 

Committees   self-appointed  —  Suggested   possibilities: 

Decoration  —  of  a  more  or  less  permanent  character: 
Subdivisions:  shelf,  plant,  loam,  picture. 

Special  Holiday  Staff.  Hallowe'en,  Armistice  Day,  Thanksgiv- 
ing, Christmas,  Easter  Season,  Valentine's  Day,  Washington's 
Birthday,  Arbor  Day,  etc.  (Additions  and  omissions  according 
to  interest  and  locality.) 

Auxiliary  Committees.  Thrift  or  waste,  exhibit,  bulletin  board 
and  filing,  correspondence,  bureau  of  information  (this  in 
connection  with  traveling  or  locally  established  art  or  other 
exhibits  of  group  interest,  moving-picture  helps,  names  and 
addresses  of  persons,  films,  companies,  or  bureaus  likely  to 
have  materials  or  information  useful  in  civic  connections; 
this  activity  may  well  be  extended  into  community  service  to 
the  foreign  families  newly  arrived). 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  313 

C.  Drives  connected  with  community  or  national  activities. 

D.  Campaigns l    connected    with    community    or    national 
activities. 

E.  Literature,  biographies,  stories,  poems  —  all  simple  but 
stirring. 

F.  Drama  —  capable  of  making  a  very  strong  appeal  to  this 
group. 

G.  Music  —  capable  of  making  a  very  strong  appeal   to 
this  group. 

For  this  group  civics  could  be  made  the  core  about  which  could 
be  built  much  of  the  work  in  the  three  R's,  in  the  cultural  subjects, 
and  also  in  the  hand  work  which  it  is  hoped  would  be  provided  for 
these  boys. 

VII.   (M.  E.  D.)   Program  for  a  Case  Group  of  Boys  from 
High-Grade  Environment 

1.  Case  group.  Boys  about  14  years  of  age  in  8th  grade  of  a 
training  school  of  a  normal  college  in  a  Western  city  of  about 
30,000  population. 

2.  Diagnosis.  These  boys  are  the  sons  of  professional  and  av- 
erage well-to-do  business  men.  Socially  their  parents  belong  to  the 
so-called  "middle  class."  Intellectually  they  are  rather  superior. 
The  boys  will  range  from  the  average  to  the  superior  class  mentally. 
They  have  been  rather  carefully  reared  and  have  been  taught  to 
conform  in  the  usual  way.  They  have  had  the  influence  of  and 
access  to  the  advantages  offered  by  the  normal  school,  the  library 
of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  etc.  While  the  school  is  directly  supervised  by 
the  normal  school,  it  is  essentially  "free,"  wherein  it  is  necessary 
for  the  boys  to  assume  initiative  and  responsibility.  These  boys 
accept  school  as  a  matter  of  course,  some  requiring  urging  by  parents 
and  teachers,  others  absorbed.  They  will  probably  continue  through 
the  high  school  and  many  will  go  to  normal  school  and  college. 
Physically,  they  are  healthy.  Many  excel  in  athletic  sports.  They 
are  fairly  well  satisfied  with  the  life  they  lead.  There  are  already 
indications  of  "smugness."    They  are  ambitious  personally  and  for 

1  Illustrations  of  possible  campaigns : 
Clean-up  Week; 
Drink  More  Milk; 
See  a  Dentist; 
Join  the  Oculists'  Glasses  Club;  etc. 


314  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

own  group.   They  take  an  active  part  in  public  questions,  elections, 
etc. 

3.  Prognosis,  general.  These  boys  will  become  professional  men 
(some  will  be  teachers,  due  to  the  influence  of  the  normal  school), 
commercial  or  business  men.  Few  of  them  will  engage  in  farming 
or  the  trades.  They  will  represent  the  average  well-to-do  citizen. 
Some  of  them  will  be  leaders  in  their  chosen  profession.  They  will 
be  members  of  the  leading  clubs,  and  will  take  part  in  the  activities 
of  the  city.  There  will  be  cooperation  and  loyalty  within  their  own 
group. 

4.  Prognosis,  civic.  They  will  become  law-abiding,  conforming 
citizens,  with  a  tendency  to  ignore  any  group  of  a  different  political 
or  social  faith.  Many  of  them  will  be  leaders  of  the  recognized  order, 
socially  and  politically.   Others  will  be  absorbed  in  self-promotion. 

5.  Civic  deficiencies.  Lack  of  understanding  of  and  sympathy 
with  the  so-called  inferior  groups;  lack  of  adequate  sociological 
background;  lack  of  ability  to  cooperate  with  all  classes;  lack  of 
ability  to  meet  exigencies,  such  as  strikes,  etc. 

6.  Proposed  objectives.  Civics  will  emerge  from  the  curriculum 
as  a  specific  study  in  the  8th  grade,  (a)  To  lay  a  foundation  for 
later  civic  study,  (b)  To  aid  the  group  to  meet  present  civic  situa- 
tions, working  knowledge  of  data,  (c)  To  create  a  motive  for 
participation  in  community  life,  (d)  To  develop  a  degree  of  coopera- 
tion, initiative,  and  responsibility,  (e)  To  develop  "social  thought, 
feeling,  and  action." 

7.  Proposed  methods,  (a)  Use  the  problem-project  method,  (b) 
First-hand  investigation,  (c)  Supplementation  —  books,  magazines, 
etc.  (d)  Participation  in  school  and  in  community  when  feasible. 
(e)  Dramatization.    (/)  "Socialized"  procedure. 

8.  Proposed  content,    (a)   Health  —  personal  and  public. 

(al)  Work  of  the  home  —  school  — 
community. 

(a2)  Pure  foods  —  water,  milk,  etc. 
How  obtained,  distribution,  legis- 
lation. 

(aS)  Disposal  of  waste. 
(6)    Social  agencies,  laws. 

(c)  Civic  beauty,  laws. 

(d)  Transportation  and  communication. 

(e)  Survey  of  the  communities'  industries 

—  informational. 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  315 

9.   Activities. 

Debates,  speeches,  pageants,  dramas  (original),  score  cards, 
charts,  maps,  participation. 

VIII.   (R.  W.  H.)  Proposed  Program  for  Selected  Group 

Boys  16-18  years  of  age  in  high  schools  of  cities  of  100,000  to 
300,000  in  North  Atlantic  states. 

Case  group.  These  boys  are  a  sifted  group,  able  to  stay  in  school, 
coming  from  well-to-do  but  not  wealthy  homes  for  the  most  part; 
do  not  expect  to  go  to  college.  Many  racial  stocks  are  represented. 
They  have  little  enthusiasm  for  school  work,  are  infected  with  the 
"get  by"  attitude,  and  give  little  thought  as  to  their  future  life 
work.  On  the  whole  a  clean  and  wholesome  type,  since  most  of 
the  undesirables  have  been  sifted  out;  greatly  interested  in  athletics; 
like  to  join  fraternities  and  clubs;  prefer  men  teachers;  dislike 
preachments,  and  "soft"  penalties.  They  enjoy  open  discussion, 
particularly  of  a  political  nature,  and  will  reason  more  clearly  and 
to  the  point  than  girls  in  these  matters. 

Will  become  for  the  great  part  good  conforming  citizens;  will 
join  a  political  party  and  remain  regular;  will  be  skillfully  manipu- 
lated by  party  bosses;  are  sectional  in  their  political  views;  will  hold 
minor  offices  in  their  home  city;  build  up  a  small  business  of  their 
own  or  become  managers  or  salesmen  for  large  business  firms.  In 
general,  a  solid  upper-grade  middle  class. 

Main  objectives.  Training  that  will  produce:  (1)  a  healthful 
citizen,  (2)  a  "vocational"  citizen,  (3)  an  educated  citizen,  (4)  a 
participating  citizen.  (Nos.  1  and  2,  although  highly  important  in 
any  well-rounded  scheme  for  citizenship  training,  are  not  under 
discussion  in  this  paper.) 

Specific  civic  objectives  for  "the  educated  citizen"  should  include: 

(1)  A  body  of  general  information:  knowledge  of  (a)  his  own 
country  and  its  institutions,  (b)  other  countries  and  their 
institutions. 

(2)  An  interest  in  and  comprehensive  understanding  of  the  social 
problems  of  his  own  time. 

(3)  An  open-minded  attitude  toward  controversial  subjects. 

(4)  A  proper  evaluation  of  his  own  responsibilities  for  his  group 
relationships:  (a)  home,  (b)  associate,  (c)  federate. 

(5)  A  recognition  of  the  value  of  his  civic  inheritance. 


316  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

"The  participating  citizen"  should  have  training  which  will  give 
him: 

(1)  The  incentive  to  give  time  and  thought  and,  if  need  be, 
participation  in  public  affairs. 

(2)  An  understanding  of  the  way  to  go  about  it  to  obtain  authentic 
information  on  public  questions. 

(3)  The  ability  to  evaluate  correctly  qualities  of  leadership  in 
public  servants. 

Methodology.  Toward  making  the  "educated  citizen"  are  recom- 
mended courses  in  (1)  Modern  History;  (2)  American  History  and 
Government;  (3)  Problems  in  American  Democracy. 

(1)  Modern  History:  Introductory  statement.  As  a  teacher  of 
history  for  many  years  I  have  come  to  feel  with  increasing  force 
that  history  is  not  doing  for  our  pupils  what  the  Committee  of 
Seven  said  history  should  do.  For  instance,  in  that  report  (1899) 
under  the  caption  of  "Training  for  Citizenship"  we  note  the  follow- 
ing as  objectives  of  history:  "History  cultivates  the  judgment  by 
leading  the  pupil  to  see  the  relation  between  cause  and  effect;" 
"the  power  to  gather  information  and  to  use  it;"  "training  in  the 
handling  of  books;"  "historical  mindedness;"  "developing  the 
scientific  habit  of  thought;"  etc.  It  is  my  contention  that  these 
objectives,  splendid  in  themselves  in  training  citizens,  are  not 
realized  from  the  study  of  history  as  generally  taught  in  our  high 
schools  today.  Dr.  Tuell  in  Study  of  Nations  writes:  "History  in 
the  schools  has  recently  been  put  on  the  defensive,  challenged  as  a 
failure  in  its  civic  functions.  Its  established  theory  crumbles  for 
lack  of  definite  social  purpose." 

Problem.  Let  us  set  as  our  objectives  the  citizenship  concomitants 
set  forth  by  the  Committee  of  Seven  as  listed  above,  and  take  our 
method  from  Dewey:  "The  true  starting  point  of  history  is  always 
some  present-day  situation."  If  this  general  method  is  followed, 
the  class  will  not  have  the  customary  chart  and  guide  in  the  form  of 
a  chronologically  arranged  text.  The  special  method  employed  is 
the  problem-project  with  its  essential  four  steps,  "purposing,  plan- 
ning, execution,  judgment."  The  field  to  be  covered  is  from  1650 
to  the  present.  The  class  is  democratically  organized  with  chairman, 
secretary,  and  activities'  committees,  a  large  chronological  chart  is 
drawn  up,  reference  shelves  reserved  in  the  school  library,  one  of 
the  Current  Event  Publications  for  each  member  of  the  class,  and 
a  civic  notebook  kept. 

Type  of  projects.     (1)  The  Industrial   Revolution  and   how   it 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  317 

affects  us  today.  (2)  How  did  France  become  a  republic?  (3)  What 
are  the  causes  underlying  the  unrest  in  Russia?  (4)  Why  is  Japan 
one  of  the  five  leading  nations?  (5)  What  were  the  causes  of  the 
World  War?  (6)  Why  is  Poland  demanding  her  "ancient  rights 
and  privileges"?  (7)  What  power  does  the  King  of  England 
actually  possess  today?  (8)  How  did  Italy  become  something  more 
than  "a  geographical  expression"?  (9)  What  is  the  significance  of 
the  title  of  "The  Fatherland"  in  German  history?  (10)  What  is 
the  League  of  Nations?  etc.,  etc. 

Many  such  pertinent  questions  as  these,  bearing  directly  upon  the 
social,  political,  and  economic  phases  of  modern  life,  rise  naturally 
to  the  lips  of  pupils  awake  to  present-day  conditions.  It  is  one  of 
the  chief  duties  of  the  teacher  to  stimulate  these  interests  and  then 
guide  them  intelligently.  The  instructor  should  have  so  charted 
his  course  in  advance  that  at  the  end  of  the  year's  work  the  class 
would  have  "covered  essentials,"  although  in  no  page-by-page 
fashion.  The  fact  content,  in  my  mind,  will  be  as  great  under  this 
method,  more  ready  for  use,  and  better  retained  in  memory.  Sum- 
maries or  "irreducible  minimums"  should  be  built  up  at  the  end  of 
each  project,  mimeographed,  and  each  member  should  have  a  copy. 

There  is  little  that  is  new  in  this  particular  approach.  Dr.  Snedden 
several  years  ago  pointed  out  the  distinction  between  the  "assimila- 
tion" and  the  "cold  storage"  methods  in  history  teaching.  The 
objectives  desired  are  secured.  The  pupils  get  the  ability  to  gather 
the  information  necessary  to  solve  the  particular  problem  on  hand ; 
while  the  classroom  discussions  and  debates  develop  "light,  not 
heat,"  independent  judgment,  and  historical  mindedness. 

(2)  American  History  and  Government  and  (3)  The  Problems 
of  American  Democracy.    Introductory  statement: 

In  the  course  in  American  History  and  Government  the  stress 
should  come  on  the  nationalistic  period.  A  rapid  review  of  the  dis- 
covery and  colonial  period,  while  half  of  the  time  usually  allotted  to 
the  Revolutionary  period  might  well  be  devoted  to  a  study  of  its 
causes.  For  the  constitutional  period  Dr.  Butler  has  suggested: 
"We  have  not  recently  done  any  effective  or  widespread  work  in 
teaching  the  fundamental  principles  of  American  government.  We 
have  taught  .  .  .  the  mechanics  of  government  and  some  of  the 
practices  of  citizenship,  but  the  underlying  theories  we  have  passed 
by  as  self-evident."  The  problem  here  is  how  to  get  over  to  these 
young  citizens  these  "fundamental  theories  and  principles,"  so 
they  will  come  to  have  a  proper  evaluation  of  their  political  inheri- 


318  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

tance.  Method:  Thorndike  in  Education:  "The  educational  value 
of  finding  the  causes  of  what  is,  and  the  causes  of  these  causes,  is 
very  much  superior  to  the  spurious  reasoning  which  comes  from 
explaining  a  record  already  known."  Work  this  theory  out  in  some 
vital  present-day  situation,  e.g.,  the  Eighteenth  Amendment.  What 
are  the  constitutional  rights  claimed  to  be  invaded?  Let  these  be 
listed  for  purposes  of  class  discussion  and  study. 

(1)  The  right  of  a  state  to  determine  this  issue  for  itself.  (2)  The 
right  of  the  government  to  take  over  and  destroy  private  property 
without  compensation.  (3)  The  right  of  a  general  state  referendum 
to  overrule  legislative  action.  (4)  The  claim  that  it  was  not  legally 
adopted :  (a)  due  to  the  absence  of  many  overseas  voters ;  (b)  due  to  a 
general  willingness  to  sacrifice  one's  rights  temporarily  during  war- 
time; (c)  due  to  a  technical  illegality  in  the  wording  of  the  amend- 
ment, etc.  Take  these  up  for  discussion  separately,  consult  author- 
ities, publications,  and  have  each  one  defend  his  position.  A  formal 
debate  might  close  the  general  discussion.  This  is  typical  of  the 
"Problems  in  Democracy"  for  the  senior  year.  This  course  should 
make  use  of  all  that  has  gone  before.  Government,  like  history,  will 
be  called  in  only  when  needed  for  purposes  of  problem  solution. 
Our  high  schools  can  no  longer  play  the  ostrich  policy  on  the  contro- 
versial questions  which  will  be  met  with  this  Twelfth  year.  All 
teachers  and  pupils  should  be  seekers  after  truth,  working  in  the 
spirit  of  Franklin's  plea  for  harmony  at  the  Constitutional  Con- 
vention: "It  is  light,  not  heat,  gentlemen,  that  the  country  demands 
of  us." 

These  "Problems"  can  be  arranged  and  presented  by  the  teacher 
according  to  the  character  of  the  class,  the  amount  of  available 
material,  and  the  immediate  interest  of  the  topic.   Suggestions: 

Political  problems.  (1)  Types  of  city  government.  (2)  The  League 
of  Nations.  (3)  The  "grandfather  clauses."  (4)  Compulsory  mili- 
tary training.  (5)  The  D.  and  R.  economic  problems:  (a)  Con- 
servation of  natural  resources;  (b)  Government  paper  money;  (c) 
Capital  vs.  labor;  (d)  The  tariff;  (e)  Government  ownership. 

Social  problems.  (1)  Immigration;  (2)  The  negro  question;  (3) 
Marriage  and  divorce;  (4)  Socialism;  (5)  Women  in  industry.  Well- 
nigh  indispensable  adjuncts  to  this  course  are:  (a)  a  debating  society 
or  congress;  (b)  a  current  events  club;  (c)  a  clipping  book  or  filing 
cabinet;  (d)  cooperation  with  the  local  librarian;  (e)  the  socialized 
recitation;  (/)  a  teacher  trained  to  handle  the  project  method.  Ac- 
cording to  Parker  it  will  take  four  years  in  service  adequately  to 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  319 

train  a  teacher  to  handle  this  method.  At  the  close  of  a  discussion 
of  any  one  of  these  problems  it  would  be  well  to  have  a  formal 
debate.  Thereby  those  particularly  interested  can  go  farther  afield, 
consult  many  authorities,  prepare  a  brief,  and  learn  to  think  and 
talk  to  the  point. 

Here  is  the  place  for  the  "thin"  textbook.  One  small  book  could 
contain  the  basic  material  for  one  of  these  main  problems  or  a 
related  group  of  problems.  This  material  should  present  both  sides 
of  the  question,  and  quote  extensively  from  authorities.  Some  of 
the  fundamental  principles  of  economic  theory  should  be  set  forth: 
e.g.,  the  laws  governing  supply  and  demand;  the  theory  of  Malthus; 
Gresham's  Law.  At  the  close  of  this  "thin"  text,  debatable  resolu- 
tions bearing  on  the  problem  could  be  presented,  and  possibly  the 
main  heads  of  a  brief,  with  a  few  good  references  on  both  sides  of 
the  question. 

During  this  as  well  as  the  previous  year  the  class  should  have  train- 
ing in  evaluating  the  news,  distinguishing  between  fact  and  opinion, 
and  comparing  and  balancing  authorities.  They  should  learn  how  to 
handle  the  Dewey  decimal  system  and  the  Readers'  Guide.  It  would 
be  greatly  to  their  advantage  to  know  a  little  psychology  —  enough, 
at  least,  to  show  them  how  habits  are  formed,  with  definite  applica- 
tion in  their  individual  cases,  in  learning  how  to  study,  or  how  to 
break  a  bad  habit  and  form  a  good  one. 

The  participating  citizen:  "The  citizenship  muscles  of  the  future 
American  man,  and  even  more  woman,  must  be  exercised."  The 
best  hope  we  have  of  the  kind  of  citizens  these  boys  are  going  to  be- 
come is  the  kind  of  citizens  they  prove  themselves  to  be  in  their  daily 
contacts  at  school  and  in  the  community.  To  be  sure,  the  pulls 
and  strains  of  later  years  may  overcome  all  previous  training.  Two 
things  we  can  do:  First,  subject  the  boys  to  as  many  of  these  vital 
situations  in  school  as  we  can  devise.  The  school  should  organize 
in  as  democratic  manner  as  possible  on  the  basis  of  meeting  its  own 
needs,  and  not  on  any  artificial  basis.  Pupils  should  participate  in 
the  organization  and  direction  of  school  activities,  both  athletic 
and  social.  Election  of  officers  for  these  positions  should  be  con- 
ducted in  a  dignified  and  parliamentary  manner.  There  are  many 
ways  of  getting  this  type  of  participation  within  the  school,  but 
more  important  and  far  more  difficult  is  the  second ;  namely,  partici- 
pation that  takes  the  boy  out  into  the  community,  doing  those  worth- 
while things  which  the  city  recognizes  as  being  distinctly  valuable. 
During  the  war  there  were  many  splendid  illustrations  of  this;  e.g., 


320  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

Boys'  Working  Reserve.  This  was  the  finest  type  of  citizenship 
training,  as  their  civic  ideals  eventuated  into  worth-while  activity. 
"Action  is  the  only  foundation  of  virtue,"  says  Aristotle.  We  need 
to  devise  ways  and  means  of  getting  boys  of  this  age  group  interested 
and  engaged  in  such  community  activities.  Two  helpful  publica- 
tions: (1)  The  Junior  Citizen,  published  by  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, Lincoln,  Nebraska,  is  an  account  of  the  activities  and 
community  projects  of  the  Junior  Civic  and  Industrial  League.  The 
significant  fact  is  that  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Lincoln  is 
working  with  the  school  leagues,  a  very  hopeful  sign.  (2)  A  Course 
of  Study  in  Civics  —  stressing  particularly  participation,  issued  by 
the  State  Normal  School,  San  Jose,  California.  Conclusion:  "One 
founder  is  worth  a  thousand  reformers"  (Horace  Mann). 

IX.   (J.  V.  L.  M.)   Proposed  Program  of  Civic  Education  for 
Apprentice  Schools  in  the  Manufacturing  Crafts  and  in 
Railroad  Shops 
I.   Considerations  upon  which  recommendations  are  based: 

1.  Type  of  student. 

Boys,  age  group  16  to  18,  or  first  two  years  of  apprentice- 
ship; high  percentage  of  native  parentage;  above  the  average 
schooling  (usually  8th  grade  or  better) ;  a  group  selected  by 
the  management  of  the  employing  industry  for  apparently 
superior  industrial  intelligence  and  physique  and  by  reject- 
ing undesirables  after  a  probationary  period  of  several 
months;  applicants  willing  to  forgo  the  somewhat  better 
financial  returns  of  ordinary  casual  adolescent  employment 
to  stick  to  one  employer  for  a  period  of  three  to  five  years, 
and  to  utilize  part  of  their  own  free  time  in  study  or  supple- 
mentary night-school  instruction,  and  who  prefer  manual 
employment  to  sedentary  clerical  positions. 

2.  Adult  group  aged  25  to  60  whom  they  may  be  expected  to 
replace:  industrial  foremen  and  superintendents  and  the 
unionized  craftsmen;  a  considerable  percentage  apprentice- 
trained  ;  frequently  relatives  of  the  boys ;  show  a  tendency  to 
migrate  in  employment  during  a  period  after  completing 
apprenticeship;  apparently  prefer  stable  employment  in 
mature  years;  under  favorable  conditions  home  owners  and 
family  men;  patriotic  and  until  recently  conservative  in 
their  political  opinions;  at  present  apparently  show  a  ten- 
dency more  radical,  as  evidenced  by  such  movements  as 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  321 

the  "Plumb  plan"  and  by  agitation  for  industrial  democ- 
racy, with  some  support  for  employee  cooperative  enter- 
prises. 

II.    Type  of  instructor  recommended. 

One  neutral  as  to  capital-labor  controversies,  such  as  an 
educator  who  has  been  a  student  of  economics,  sociology, 
and  psychology,  acceptable  both  to  the  industry's  manage- 
ment and  the  employees'  organizations,  who  has  the  good 
will  of  the  apprentices,  of  the  type  of  the  supervisor  of 
apprentices  usually  found  in  these  plants.  In  some  cases 
perhaps  to  be  supplied  by  the  industrial  Y.  M.  C.  A. 

III.    Courses  recommended. 

Course  A 

1.  Discussion  of  conditions  and  opportunities  of  apprenticeship. 

a.  The  organization  of  the  shop  instruction  and  of  the  supplemen- 
tary studies  and  their  utility. 

b.  Opportunities  of  the  apprentices  as  evidenced  by  present 
positions  of  former  graduates. 

2.  Industrial  relationships. 

a.  Necessity  for  shop  discipline. 

b.  Relationships  to  fellow  apprentices  and  other  employees. 

3.  Civic  responsibilities. 

a.  Frank  discussion  of  current  public  questions,  such  as  at  this 
moment  —  prohibition,  the  acceptance  of  the  League  of  Nations 
by  the  United  States,  deportation  of  communistic  aliens,  exclu- 
sion of  Socialists  from  the  state  assembly. 

b.  The  party  system  and  local  participation. 

c.  Discussion  of  present  office  holders  as  to  their  fitness  for  their 
positions  in  federal,  state,  and  local  government. 

d.  Local  problems  such  as  traction  facilities  and  education,  with 
fiscal  limitations. 

4.  Trade  unionism. 

a.  History  and  organization. 

b.  Strikes,  when  justified  and  likely  to  be  successful.  Costs  to 
labor,  industry,  and  the  public.   Means  for  avoidance. 

c.  Relation  to  production  efficiency.  Weekly  and  daily  hour 
schedules.   Piece  work.   Bonuses  and  profit  sharing. 

d.  Craft  pride. 


322  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

5.  Thrift. 

a.  Saving,  banking,  building  and  loan  associations.  Life  insurance, 
safe  investments. 

b.  Home  ownership. 

Course  B 

6.  Health. 

a.  Temperance,  athletic  clubs. 

6.  Hygiene,  cleanliness,  and  occupational  diseases  in  industry 
concerned. 

c.  Sex  continence. 

7.  Accident  prevention  and  alleviation. 

a.   Investigation  of  summary  of  accidents  in  the  plant,  with  dis- 
cussion of  means  of  prevention.    Workmen's  compensation  law. 
6.    First-aid  treatment. 

8.  Employees'  cooperative  enterprises. 

a.  Discussion  of  any  such  in  operation  either  in  plant  concerned  or 
where  known  to  boys.  Sources  of  saving  in  distribution  cost. 
Probable  limitations. 

9.  Corporation  organization. 

a.  The  plant's  table  of  organization. 

b.  Personality  of  officials,  and  duties. 

c.  Teamwork  and  company  loyalty. 

10.  Industrial  history. 

a.   The  industrial  revolution. 

6.   Causes  for  present  limited  scope  of  apprenticeship. 

c.  Citation  of  attempts  at  communistic  enterprise. 

d.  Discussion  of  state  socialism,  syndicalism,  and  industrial 
democracy.    The  limiting  economic  and  psychological  factors. 

11.  Problems  of  social  betterment. 

a.  Americanization  of  aliens. 

b.  Education. 

X.  (C.  H.  C.)  Problems  of  Program  of  Special  Civic  Education 
for  a  Chinese  Group 

1.  Group.  Boys  in  junior  and  senior  classes  of  a  special  high 
school  in  China,  which  prepares  them  to  come  over  to  the  United 
States  for  higher  education.  It  is  located  in  the  outskirts  of  Peking 
(about  four  miles  from  the  city). 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  323 

2.  Diagnosis.  These  boys  come  from  prosperous  families,  which 
usually  are  not  in  Peking.  They  are  admitted  to  the  school  by  com- 
petitive examinations  held  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  so 
they  are  a  highly  selected  group.  They  are  boys  with  ambition  and 
vision,  and  have  had  substantial  preparation,  either  in  the  middle 
school  of  the  same  institution,  or  in  some  other  good  institution. 
They  have  been  guarded  by  considerable  parental  oversight  and 
given  special  attention  by  teachers.  During  their  schooling  they 
are  living  in  dormitories,  seldom  go  home  except  in  the  summer 
vacations,  and  have  little  chance  to  associate  with  the  opposite  sex. 
They  are  well  nourished  by  the  controlled  diet  of  the  school.  Their 
teachers  are  well  trained  and  well  paid.  The  facilities  and  equip- 
ment in  the  school  are  the  best  in  the  country.  The  school 
also  has  a  large  library  and  gymnasium,  under  the  supervision  of 
experts. 

Dominant  characteristics :  physically  healthy,  interested  in  sports 
and  games;  eager  to  learn,  failure  of  school  work  or  poor  grade 
regarded  as  a  shame,  keen  competition  in  class  work  as  well  as  in 
extra-curricular  activities  ;  there  are  no  fraternities,  but  many 
clubs  and  organizations  for  intellectual  purposes  or  otherwise, 
under  the  supervision  of  special  committees  of  the  faculty;  possess 
high  morale,  being  strongly  conformist;  religious  instruction  only 
through  private  Bible  classes  and  informal;  socially,  they  have 
parties  often  among  themselves  and  with  teachers;  school  atmos- 
phere, highly  solidified. 

3.  Prognosis,  general.  Except  a  few  in  the  lower  quartile,  all  will 
come  to  the  United  States  for  higher  education,  aided  by  government 
scholarships  and,  consequently,  they  are  destined  to  become  leaders 
in  different  professions.  Owing  to  their  special  abilities  and  training, 
they  usually  enter  the  junior  classes  in  small  colleges  first,  and  when 
they  finish  undergraduate  work,  they  go  to  large  institutions  for 
postgraduate  work.  Usually,  they  stay  in  this  country  for  five  years, 
and  carry  with  them  Ph.D.,  M.A.,  or  an  engineering  degree  when 
they  go  back.  They  wTill  do  pioneer  work  in  modernizing  China,  and 
they  will  be  confronted  with  many  difficult  situations.  Their  respon- 
sibility is  great,  but  their  remuneration  is  often  poor. 

4.  Prognosis,  special.  Besides  civic  education  like  that  given 
to  pupils  in  other  institutions,  they  need  a  special  civic  education, 
which  gives  them  special  intelligence  to  understand  the  United 
States  and  to  represent  China,  and  to  become  leaders  in  different 
professions  in  China.    They  have  had  usually  six  or  seven  years  of 


324  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

English,  and  are  taught  often  by  American  teachers  and  use  English 
textbooks. 

Without  special  civic  education,  they  will  be  "superior"  citizens. 
They  have  often  heard  of  certain  American  ideals  and  manners,  and 
are  inspired  by  them.  They  are  especially  interested  in  "democ- 
racy," and  read  with  much  interest  biographies  of  American  heroes, 
and  books  about  American  ideals  and  manners.  They  are  patriotic, 
loyal  to  the  republic,  and  know  their  responsibility,  but  are  rebellious 
against  certain  conventions  and  superstitions. 

Most  of  them  will  become  good  writers  and  speakers.  They  are 
eager  to  learn  to  cooperate,  interested  in  politics  and  national 
affairs.  They  are  active  and  busy. 

5.  Special  civic  education  needed  and  its  objectives:  (a)  instruc- 
tion in  American  ideals  and  ideas,  so  that  they  will  have  a  clear 
understanding  and  sympathetic  appreciation  of  them;  (b)  instruc- 
tion in  international  relationship  between  the  United  States  and 
China  for  the  same  purpose  as  above;  (c)  training  in  American  cus- 
toms and  manners,  so  that  they  may  know  how  to  conduct  them- 
selves in  American  society;  (d)  training  in  special  virtues,  such  as 
cooperation,  initiative,  etc.,  so  that  they  will  become  good  leaders; 
(e)  instruction  in  knowledge  of  social,  economic,  and  political  affairs, 
so  that  they  will  become  intelligent  leaders ;  (/)  training  and  instruc- 
tion in  effective  methods  for  achieving  desired  political  and  social 
changes  or  reforms  in  their  country. 

6.  Special  civic  education  given  now:  (a)  a  course  in  American 
history  and  civics;  (b)  occasional  lectures  on  American  ideals  and 
customs ;  (c)  encouragement  to  participate  in  different  activities  by 
the  faculty;  (d)  a  course  in  economics. 

7.  Special  civic  education  to  be  added.  Necessary  instruction  and 
training  to  supplement  6,  in  order  to  fulfill  5. 

8.  Problems  of  method,  (a)  Shall  we  give  special  civic  education 
in  Alpha  or  Beta  type  of  study,  or  both?  (b)  If  it  is  Alpha,  how  shall 
the  material  be  organized?  by  didactic  presentations?  by  projects? 
by  readings  and  reports?  etc.  (c)  If  it  is  Beta,  how  should  it  be  done? 
by  organizing  clubs?  by  illustrating  talks?  by  mock  plays?  etc. 
(d)  If  both  are  used,  how  can  they  be  correlated? 

9.  Proposed  methods,  (a)  A  formal  course  in  international  rela- 
tionships between  the  United  States  and  China  should  be  given, 
with  readings  and  reports  by  the  students.  (6)  A  formal  course 
consisting  of  lectures  on  American  ideals  and  ideas,  manners  and 
customs,  with  readings  and  reports  by  the  students,    (c   A  formal 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  325 

course  in  political,  social,  and  economic  changes  and  theories  should 
be  given,  with  readings  and  reports  by  the  students,  (d)  By 
correlating  courses  given  now  and  those  to  be  given,  projects 
undertaken  by  students  on  topics  related  to  6  should  be  encouraged. 
(e)  Mock  plays  about  American  customs  and  manners  given  by 
students  with  advice  from  American  teachers  should  be  encouraged. 
(/)  Arrangement  should  be  made  with  homes  of  American  teachers 
and  others  interested  in  the  college  work  to  invite  students  to  see 
their  home  life.  Certain  civic  skills  and  habits  should  be  encouraged 
and  trained;  e.g.,  Roberts'  rules  in  conducting  meetings,  voting 
systems  in  electing  officers,  fair  play  in  running  for  offices,  special 
responsibility  of  members  of  committees  for  certain  tasks,  etc. 

XI.   (P.  F.  V.)   Certain  Problems  of  Method 

In  a  scheme  of  objectives  of  social  education  which  has  been 
accepted  provisionally,  the  next  problem  will  be  to  determine  how 
ideals  and  attitudes  in  that  education  can  be  taught.  The  following 
principles  are  submitted: 

1.  Social  education  can  best  be  given  in  a  social  environment. 
Dewey  says,  "You  cannot  teach  a  child  to  swim  unless  you  take 
him  to  the  water."  The  gang,  the  clique,  or  neighborhood  group  is 
the  natural  gymnasium  in  which  the  qualities  of  citizenship  must 
be  exercised.  These  virtues  can  best  be  evoked  and  strengthened 
in  the  environment  of  the  group.  Sumner  says,  "Ethics  do  not  exist 
except  in  a  group."  The  more  closely  knit  the  group  organization, 
the  more  powerfully  will  the  group  standards  be  impressed  upon 
each  individual.  Lee  says,  in  Play  in  Education:  "The  lack  of  defi- 
nite social  pressure  is  the  weakest  point  in  our  present  civilization. 
We  need  for  our  salvation  the  compelling  influence  of  a  particular 
group,  with  definite  standards  and  stern  transmission  of  them.  With 
the  primitive  but  definite  ideals  of  barbarian  society  something  very 
precious  has  been  lost.  We  need  in  some  form  that  compactness 
of  social  structure,  capable  of  receiving  and  transmitting  definite 
standards  of  behavior,  without  subjection  to  which  the  future  citizen 
is  denied  the  most  important  element  in  education." 

2.  The  second  principle  is  that  standards  should  be  built  up  within 
the  group  and  not  imposed  from  without.  Only  the  recognized  leaders 
of  a  group  are  able  to  modify  its  standards.  A  teacher  or  a  policeman 
may  hold  a  group  in  subjection  by  the  sheer  strength  of  his  personal- 
ity or  authority,  but  until  he  is  accepted  by  the  group  as  an  "  insider," 


326  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

his  influence  will  not  extend  beyond  his  authority.  It  is  impossible 
for  an  outsider  to  break  the  will  of  a  gang.  His  efforts  are  likely  to 
have  the  opposite  effect.  Any  individual  member  of  the  group  who 
in  a  moment  of  weakness  is  induced  to  "tell  tales"  on  the  others, 
not  only  loses  caste  with  the  organization,  but  through  his  very 
treason  strengthens  the  other  members  in  their  determination  to 
adhere  to  the  accepted  standards. 

3.  The  third  principle  is  that  every  modification  of  the  standards  of 
the  group  and  every  moral  readjustment  in  the  minds  of  the  individuals 
composing  the  group  can  best  be  brought  about  by  means  of  grappling 
with  vital  issues.  These  issues  must  be  related  to  the  personal 
experiences  or  at  least  to  the  interesting  vicarious  experiences  of  the 
individual  members.  The  most  vital  issues  are  those  which  tend 
to  grow  out  of  their  immediate  group  life.  Dr.  Frank  McMurry 
says  that  a  series  of  issues  which  are  vital  to  the  student  constitutes 
a  curriculum.  Dr.  Dewey  says  that  "ideas  must  be  acquired  in  a 
vital  way  in  order  to  become  moving  ideas,  motive  forces  in  the 
guidance  of  conduct."  The  vitalizing  element  is  emotional.  It  is 
related  to  the  needs  or  interests  of  the  individual  in  relation  to 
his  group  life.  When  a  situation  presents  itself  which  demands  a 
response  on  the  part  of  all  the  individual  members  of  the  group, 
it  becomes  a  vital  issue.  There  will  be  interplay  of  minds.  Facts 
will  be  brought  out  and  information  sought  in  the  adjustment  of 
the  issue.  It  is  evident  that  under  these  circumstances  the  informa- 
tion or  knowledge  that  is  acquired  will  find  its  proper  place;  namely, 
in  the  service  of  purpose. 

4.  The  fourth  principle  is  that  the  positive  social  virtues  can  best 
be  strengthened  by  means  of  actual  participation.  The  activities  of 
the  group  must  be  cooperative.  The  boys  must  play  together  and 
work  together;  they  must  participate  not  only  in  the  activities  of 
the  small  group  in  which  they  hold  their  immediate  membership, 
but  also  in  many  of  the  activities  of  the  larger  community  of  which 
they  are  a  part.  During  the  war  our  wisest  teachers  utilized  their 
golden  opportunity  to  teach  citizenship  by  means  of  such  participa- 
tion projects  as  visiting  the  sick;  war  gardening;  selling  Liberty 
Bonds;  investing  in  Savings  Stamps;  and  working  for  the  Red  Cross. 
Such  participation  is  useful  not  only  because  it  tends  to  fix  certain 
habits  of  participation,  but  also  because  it  tends  to  establish  certain 
ideals  and  attitudes.  The  development  of  a  social  conscience,  of  a 
community  of  interest,  the  bringing  to  bear  of  social  pressures,  will 
require  a  technique  which  is  difficult  to  create  unless  there  is  social 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  327 

participation.  By  helping  to  make  the  rules  of  the  game,  the 
individual  will  learn  from  experience  how  agreements  are  reached 
by  compromise,  and  thus  come  to  realize  the  advantages  of  coopera- 
tive activity.  By  being  subjected  to  social  pressure  he  learns  to 
respond  to  it.  By  taking  part  in  the  projects  of  the  group  he  will 
learn  that  he  is  expected  to  do  his  share  of  the  work.  By  exercising 
his  conscience  on  live  moral  issues  he  becomes  sensitive  to  the 
principles  involved. 

5.  The  fifth  principle  is  the  principle  of  group  motivation.  Thorn- 
dike  says,  "Motivation  must  be  strong  enough  so  that  the  individual 
will  act  and  act  again  and  be  dissatisfied  by  other  types  of  action." 
In  a  group  of  Boy  Scouts  the  leader  constantly  aims  at  social 
motivation.  This  is  done  by  praising  the  group  as  a  whole  rather 
than  any  individual  member  of  it,  by  setting  up  group  objectives 
to  be  accomplished  rather  than  individual  objectives. 

6.  The  sixth  principle  is  that  the  small  group  virtues  should  be 
strengthened  and  used  as  a  basis  for  the  strengthening  of  the  virtues 
that  will  be  useful  in  the  larger  group.  Each  individual  must  learn  to 
adjust  himself  to  group  life.  The  first  adjustments  that  he  learns 
to  make  are  naturally  those  in  the  family  circle  and  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood.  The  later  and  perhaps  more  impersonal  adjustments 
to  the  larger  community  are  interpreted  in  the  light  of  his  earlier 
and  more  personal  adjustments.  In  the  family  and  neighborhood 
group  he  must  learn  not  to  be  quarrelsome,  he  must  not  tell  lies,  he 
must  not  commit  injury  against  any  member  of  the  group,  he  must 
not  be  unjust,  he  must  not  steal,  he  must  not  be  untruthful. 

7.  The  seventh  principle  is  that  the  limits  and  the  conflicts  between 
the  small  and  the  large  group  relationships  must  be  clearly  defined 
and  situations  must  be  provided  for  solving  problems  in  which  such 
conflicts  occur.  Small  group  loyalties  are  a  menace  to  society  at 
large,  unless  upon  these  loyalties  there  are  grafted  motives  for  the 
welfare  of  the  larger  group. 

8.  The  eighth  principle  is  that  the  personality  of  the  teacher  or 
leader  is  a  fundamental  factor  in  the  establishment  of  standards  and 
traditions.  "As  is  the  teacher,  so  is  the  school."  The  concrete 
reality  of  living  personality  in  daily  contact  with  the  child  is  perhaps 
the  most  effective  source  of  his  ideals.  There  is  nothing  more  con- 
tagious than  personal  example.  The  virtues  and  the  vices  of  the 
leader  tend  to  be  imitated  by  the  members  of  the  group.  The 
attitudes,  tastes,  prejudices,  and  ideals  of  the  leader  tend  to  be 
unconsciously  absorbed.    The  sum  total  of  the  leader's  attitudes. 


328  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

tastes,  prejudices,  and  ideals  constitutes  his  personality.  Ideals  thus 
become  "inspiring"  when  they  are  exemplified  in  the  life  of  an 
individual,  and  the  influence  of  such  an  individual  leader  is  limited 
only  by  the  positive  or  negative  emotional  reactions  on  the  part 
of  those  who  are  being  led. 

9.  The  ninth  principle  is  the  principle  of  utilizing  mottoes,  slogans, 
shibboleths,  taboos,  and  other  words  or  phrases  which  will  tend  to  unify 
or  organize  for  each  individual  the  standards  which  he  is  accepting  from 
the  group.  Examples  of  such  mottoes  stated  in  the  negative  are: 
"Don't  be  a  quitter;"  "Don't  be  yellow;"  "Don't  be  a  mucker,"  "a 
squealer,"  "a  pussy-footer;"  "Don't  be  a  cad."  Other  examples 
stated  positively  are:  "  Be  square;  "  "  Be  honest;"  "  The  'fair  play' 
boy;"  "  The  square  dealers." 

10.  The  tenth  principle  is  the  law  of  effect.  The  best  way  to  build 
an  inhibitive  habit  in  any  individual  against  an  antisocial  practice 
is  to  associate  the  practice  with  dissatisfaction  or  annoyance.  One 
such  annoyance  may  be  enough  to  form  a  permanent  inhibition. 
The  burnt  child  dreads  the  fire.  The  burning  was  an  annoyance. 
The  boy  who  is  caught  in  the  act  of  cheating  or  stealing  and  who 
finds  social  pressure  and  disapproval  against  such  practice,  may  be 
permanently  cured  the  moment  he  feels  the  sense  of  shame.  In  a 
former  generation  the  clergyman  tried  to  arouse  his  hearers  to  a 
"consciousness  of  sin."  This  is  good  educational  psychology.  A 
strong  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  will  set  up  inhibitive  tendencies 
that  will  stand  in  the  way  of  a  reaction  when  the  next  temptation 
comes. 

The  counterpart  of  this  principle  is  the  law  of  satisfaction.  Dewey 
says  that  "inhibition  is  not  sufficient;  instincts  and  impulses  must 
be  concentrated  upon  positive  ends."  When  a  boy  has  done  a  good 
deed,  when  he  has  rendered  a  social  service,  when  he  has  shown 
himself  trustworthy  in  word  and  act,  his  right  action  should  be 
accompanied  by  satisfaction.  This  satisfaction  may  be  the  result 
of  an  inner  "squaring"  of  his  action  with  his  accepted  standards. 
Or  it  may  be  the  result  of  the  approval  of  his  superiors  and  of  his 
equals  of  his  right  action. 

11.  The  eleventh  principle  is  that  ideals  and  attitudes  are  general- 
izations of  specific  habits.  "Build  from  specific  habits  by  the  induc- 
tive method,"  says  Snedden.  "Prejudices  and  attitudes  may  grow 
out  of  specific  habits,"  says  Bagley,  "as  when  the  habits  of  Sunday 
observance,  established  in  early  childhood,  become  more  or  less 
explicitly  formulated   as   ideals   and   gradually   come   to   express 


SAMPLE  STUDIES  329 

themselves  as  prejudices  which  make  the  lack  of  observance  a 
matter  of  discomfort  and  annoyance.  .  .  .  From  the  specific  habits 
of  accuracy  developed  by  mathematics,  one  comes  gradually  to 
idealize  accuracy  as  a  method  of  procedure  that  will  bring  desirable 
results  in  other  fields." 

12.  The  final  principle  is  that  ideals  are  best  strengthened  through 
emotional  experiences.  This  is  almost  a  corollary  of  the  law  of 
effect.  No  amount  of  reasoning  can  move  a  man  to  act  unless  his 
feelings  are  also  involved.  These  feelings  may  not  be  violent,  they 
may  not  be  outwardly  manifest,  but  they  are  ever  present  as 
satisfiers  and  annoy ers,  influencing  the  selective  activities  of  the 
mind.  It  is,  therefore,  easy  to  believe  that  our  ideals  are  influenced 
by  means  of  literature  and  music  and  other  forms  of  art  which 
appeal  to  the  emotions.  Our  actions  are  determined  by  our  loves 
and  hates.  The  more  powerful  these  emotions,  the  more  effective 
are  the  ideals  to  which  they  are  attached. 

The  cumulative  effect  of  emotions  when  they  are  interacting  in 
a  crowd  is  still  but  little  understood.  It  is  a  well-known  fact, 
however,  that  emotional  effects  are  greatly  heightened  in  the 
presence  of  a  multitude.  Religious  fervor  is  intensified,  a  war  spirit 
is  spread  when  men  are  congregated  in  meetings.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  an  English  writer,  Mr.  F.  H.  Hayward,  in  his  Spiritual 
Foundations  of  the  Future  suggests  the  wider  use  of  celebrations, 
pageants,  ceremonies,  dramatic  representations,  and  other  public 
performances  as  a  means  of  stimulating  emotional  fervor  in  an 
assembled  multitude  and  joining  this  fervor  with  such  ideas  of 
patriotism,  religion,  and  human  brotherhood  as  seem  most  desirable 
to  be  perpetuated. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

1.  For  students  who  care  to  pursue  sociological  studies  basic  to 
civic  education,  valuable  bibliographical  lists  of  books  and  articles 
can  be  found  in  the  following:  Clow,  F.  R.,  Principles  of  Educational 
Sociology;  Smith,  W.  R.,  An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology; 
Harvard  University,  Guide  to  Readings  in  Social  Ethics  and  Allied 
Subjects;  Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics;  Sadler,  M.  E.  (editor), 
Moral  Instruction  and  Training  in  Schools. 

2.  Under  date  of  1920  the  (United  States)  Bureau  of  Education 
published,  as  Library  Leaflet  No.  10,  a  "List  of  References  on 
Education  for  Citizenship"  containing  over  200  titles  of  current 
articles  and  books  —  articles  and  pamphlets  largely  preponderating. 

3.  Useful  articles  will  frequently  be  found  in  files  of  these  peri- 
odicals: American  Journal  of  Sociology;  Educational  Administration 
and  Supervision;  Educational  Review;  Elementary  School  Journal; 
Ilistorical  Outlook;  International  Journal  of  Ethics;  School  and 
Society;  School  Review;  Survey. 


INDEX 


Adult  case  groups,  33;  civic  practices, 
177. 

Aims  of  education,  11. 

American  history,  60;  in  civic  educa- 
tion, 252. 

Art  agencies  in  civic  education,  220. 

Average  teachers,  49. 

Bibliographical  note,  330. 
Boy  Scout  Movement,  181. 

Carrigan,  Rose  A.,  recommendations 
of,  307. 

Case  groups,  33;  illustrated,  41,  109, 
131,  258. 

Case  group  method,  explained,  245; 
illustrated,  78,  185;  uses  of,  128. 

Case  problem  method,  234. 

Chuang,  Chai  H.,  recommendations 
of,  322. 

Citizenship,  indirect  factors  in,  30. 

Civic  education,  by  environment, 
174;  courses  of  study  in,  236; 
demands  for,  7;  developmental, 
122;  in  first  six  grades,  237;  in 
second  six  grades,  239;  indirect,  8; 
in  secondary  schools,  17;  meaning 
of,  29;  means  and  methods  classi- 
fied, 187;  means  and  methods  of, 
258;  methods  of,  169;  needs  of, 
248;  objectives  of,  32;  opportuni- 
ties for,  65;  outside  of  school,  251; 
social  need  for,  35,  121;  specific 
objectives  in,  182;  suggestions  for, 
55;  weighting  of,  117. 

Civic  potentialities,  variability  of,  34. 

Civic  problems,  61. 

Civic  prognosis,  184. 

Civic  selection  by  schools,  196. 

Civic  shortages,  37,  135;  determined 
by  jury,  136. 

Collective  social  efficiency,  153. 

Community  civics,  238. 


331 


Community  leadership,  52. 
Competition  for  ascendency,  28. 
Cooperation,  2;  analyzed,  79. 
Courses  of  instruction,  172. 
Criminality,  38. 
Cultural  education,  91. 
Cultural  groups,  96. 

Debatable  issues  in  civic  education, 
266. 

Democracy,  education  for,  146;  evo- 
lution of,  159;  sociological  condi- 
tions of,  147;  what  is  it?  151. 

Democratic  education,  164. 

Democratization  of  school  govern- 
ment, 195. 

Departmental  organization,  45. 

Developmental  objectives,  144. 

Developmental  readings,  218. 

Didactic  method,  189,  201. 

Drake,  Maude  E.,  recommendations 
of,  313. 

Dramatic  projects,  216,  254. 

Economic  problems,  226. 

Education,  aims  of,  5;  broadly 
defined,  85;  differentiation  of,  6; 
for  democracy,  160;  for  utilization, 
133;  meaning  of,  83;  objectives  of, 
1;  principal  kinds  of,  12;  qualita- 
tive distinctions  in,  88 . 

Educational  sociology,  meaning  of, 
74;  methods  in,  77;  research  in,  75. 

Educative  processes,  86. 

Efficiency,  personal,  20. 

Elective  studies  in  high  schools,  69. 

Evaluation,  scientific,  114;  social, 
112. 

Fairchild,  Milton,  the  "Perfect  Hu- 
man Being,"  101. 
Family  groups,  94. 
Federate  social  groups,  13,  15. 


332 


INDEX 


Fellowship  groups,  156. 
Freedom  of  teaching,  problems  of, 
270. 

Gifted  teachers,  48. 

Graded  schools,  58. 

Grade  teachers  in  urban  schools,  57. 

Grades,  upper,  57. 

Hatch,  Roy  W.,  recommendations  of, 
315. 

Heredity  and  environment,  83. 

High  schools,  small,  54. 

Historic  school  subjects,  50. 

History  problems,  205. 

History  studies,  198;  in  civic  educa- 
tion, 67,  188;  content  of,  200; 
results  of,  202. 

History  teachers,  55. 

Home,  the,  in  civic  education,  192. 

Industrial  democracy,  157. 

Junior  high  school,  66;  civic  educa- 
tion in,  241. 

Jury  determination  of  civic  short- 
ages, 136. 

Leadership,  132. 

Limitations  in  human  powers,  148. 

McCary,  Annie  L.,  recommendations 

by,  284. 
Main  Street,  53. 

Method,  general  principles  of,  179. 
Modern  theories  of  education,  47. 
Moore,   Clyde  B.,  recommendations 

by,  279. 
Moral  discipline,  102. 
Morris,  J.   V.  L.,  recommendations 

by,  320. 

Needs  for  education,  126. 
Neighborhood  groups,  95. 


Objectives,  adapted   to   all   learners, 

142;  developmental  and  projective, 

242. 
Objectives  of  civic  education,  kinds 

of,  144;  methods  of  finding,  135. 
Objectives  of  general  education,  25; 

special  classifications,  92. 
Oligarchy,  150. 
Owning  farmers,  138. 

Peters,  Charles  C,  recommendations 

of,  301. 
Physical  education,  90. 
Political  groups,  96. 
"Principles"  in  civics,  141. 
Problem  methods,  222. 
Problem  of  poverty,  224. 
Problems,  kinds  of,  232;  of  freedom 

of  teaching,  264;  of  social  justice, 

228;  of  specific  aim,  231. 
Projective  objectives,  144;  in  history, 

204. 
Project  methods,  210. 
Projects,    212;    illustrated,    214;    in 

civic  education,  190. 

Racial  issues,  149. 

Readings  in  civics,  58. 

Relative  values  in  education,  124. 

Religious  groups,  96. 

Research  in  civic  education,  245. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  quoted,  163. 

Roys,    Abby,   recommendations   by, 

288. 
Rural  school  teachers,  46. 

School  citizenship,  193. 

School  discipline  in  civic  education, 

191. 
School  education  evaluated,  87. 
School    government    through    civic 

education,  68. 
School    subjects,    evaluation    of,    in 

in  civic  education,  253. 
Secondary  education,  reorganization 

of,  17. 


INDEX 


333 


Social  betterment,  1 ;  by  education,  5. 

Social  classes,  civic  shortages  in,  139. 

Social  coercion,  27. 

Social  conflicts,  73. 

Social  control,  121. 

Social  democracy,  155. 

Social  education,  aims  of,  13;  condi- 
tions of,  97;  democracy  in,  277; 
historic  means  of,  170;  kinds  of,  14; 
meaning  of,  94;  varieties  of,  105. 

Social  evaluation,  111. 

Social  groupings,  problems  of,  107. 

Social  groups  contrasted,  118. 

Socialization,  4. 

Social  life,  growing  complexity  of,  39. 

Socially  efficient  man,  the,  22. 

Social  objectives  classified,  89. 

Social  problems,  229. 

Social  psychology,  problems  of,  99. 

Social  repressions,  153. 

Social  sciences,  didactic,  208;  free- 
dom of  teaching,  264;  in  colleges, 
44. 


Social  science  teachers,  266;  servile, 
273;  willful,  274;  balanced,  274. 

Social  values,  teaching  of,  269. 

Social  virtues,  27. 

Sociological  meaning  of  education,  83. 

Sociology,  drama  of,  3. 

Soltes,  Mordecai,  recommendations 
by,  291. 

Specialists  as  leaders,  132. 

Specialist  teachers,  19. 

Standards  of  social  worth,  26, 115,  119. 

Superintendents  of  schools,  respon- 
sibilities of,  63. 

Survey  projects,  217. 

Teachers  as  specialists,  19. 
Teachers  of  civic  education,  42. 

Vocational  education,   90;  examples 

of,  9. 
Vocational  groups,  95. 
Voelker,  Paul  F.,  recommendations 

by,  325. 


^"lUiiiiMmiiiiiiimiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim 


1 


""'''"""''"'"''""'"'ii'iiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMimininuii 


j 


Loyal  Citizenship 

By  Thomas  Harrison  Reed 

Professor  of Government,  University  of  California 

THIS  textbook  on  citizenship  and  its  problems 
for  the  junior  high  school  acquaints  the  young 
student  with  the  fundamental  principles  of  gov- 
|      eminent,  economics,  and  sociology  underlying  all       I 
]      community  life.    It  teaches  him  that  sound  gov-       ! 
|      eminent  rests  upon  the  industry  and  high  charac- 
|      ter  of  its  citizenry.    It  gives  him  a  practical  con-      I 
1      ception  of  the  scope  of  his   future  duties      It 
|      purposes  to  make   him  a   loyal  patriot  without       I 
|      encouraging  him  to  be  priggish  in  his  enthusiasm       I 
|       for  his  country. 

The  motive  of  the  book  is  the  training  of  students  I 

1      lor  citizenship.     To  this  end  it  emphasizes  the  I 

|      principles    underlying   government    and    society  I 

|      It  impresses  on  the  student  at  every  step  his  I 

|      ethical  and  civic  responsibilities  in  relation  to  his  I 
|       rights  and  privileges. 

Loyal  Citizenship  will  develop  an  intelligent  atti-  I 

j      tude  towards  the  progress  of  political  and  social  I 

!      institutions  and  will  give  the  young  student  good  i 

reasons  for  his  faith  and  pride  in  the  ideals  of  1 

America. 

Cloth,   x  +  333  pages.    Illustrated 
WORLD   BOOK   COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,    New    YoRK 

2126    Prairie   Avenue,    Chicago 
i,,,"m"",,ll, ,"»",»""'»»»"»''»<'"' mmmmmmmmmmmtmmummmmmmmmmmmmmmm 


pun 

I     BOOKS  ON  GOVERNMENT 


FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 


j       GOVERNMENT  HANDBOOKS 

Edited  by  David  P.  Barrows  and  Thomas  H.  Reed 

1       Government  and  Politics  of  Switzerland 
By  Robert  C.  Brooks 

A  description  of  the  organization  and  functioning  of  this  gov- 
ernment, with  a  discussion  of  historical  origin  and  development 
and  with  particular  emphasis  on  the  modern  political  life  of  the 

I  country. 

|       Government  and  Politics  of  the  German  Empire 
By  Fritz-Konrad  Kruger 

A  careful  and  authoritative  study  of  the  political  institutions 
of  the  empire  before  we  entered  the  war.     An  added  pamphlet 

|  brings  the  text  up  to  peace  times. 

|       Evolution  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
1  By  Edward  Porritt 

§  The  most  comprehensive  and  up-to-date  handbook  on  the  gov- 

ernment of  Canada  since  its  confederation. 

1       Government  and  Politics  of  France 
By  Edward  McCheSney  Sait 

The  only  book  written  in  English  that  describes  French  govern- 
ment to  the  elevation  of  Deschanel  as  President  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  Millerand  Cabinet. 

DEMOCRACY  AND  WORLD  RELATIONS 

By  David  Starr  Jordan 

A  new  book,  suitable  for  high-school  and  college  classes  in  history 
or  civics,  and  for  the  general  reader.  The  first  book  on  recon- 
struction, written  in  a  candid,  non-controversial  spirit. 

CITIZENSHIP:  An  Introduction  to  Social  Ethics 
By  Milton  Bennion 

The  nature  of  society  and  social  problems;  social  obligations  of 
the  individual  and  the  opportunities  society  offers  for  develop- 
ment through  service. 

FORM  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT 

By  Thomas  Harrison  Reed 

A  high-school  textbook  in  civics;  notable  for  solid  historical  basis, 
modern  point  of  view,  and  clear  treatment  of  difficult  phases  of 
the  subject. 


I  WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY  I 

=  = 

yonkers-on-hudson,    new   york 
2126    Prairie    Avenue,    Chicago 

I  I 


— affluaa?*"*™ 

^ILL  INCREASE  TO  BOqCENthe    ^^     DAY 

DAY    AND    TO     S*"  

OVERDUE. 


YC  84266 


Y  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


